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PROJECTS 

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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


DEC  1 1  1974 

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DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


MACMKLAN  AGRICULTURAL  PROJECT  SERIES 

EDITED   BY 

RUFUS  W.  STIMSON 

Supervisor  of  Vocational  Agricultural  Education  in  Massachusetts 

VOCATIONAL   AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 
By  RuFUS  W.  Stimson 

VEGETABLE  GROWING  PROJECTS 
By  Ralph  L.  Watts 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 
By  C.  E.  Ladd 

Other  books  in  preparation 

Farming  For  Combining  Study 

Rule-Books  Earning  and  Learning  Guide-Books 


DAIRY     FARMING 
PROJECTS 


CARL  EDWIN  LADD,  PH.  D., 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Economics  and  Farm  Management,  Cornell 

University;  formerly  Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education,  New 

York  State   Education  Department,  and  Director  of 

New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture  at 

Alfred  University. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1923 

All  rights  reserved 


Printed  in  the  United  States  o]  America 


Copyright,  1923, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1923. 


LIBRARY 

N.  C.  State  College 


To  THE  Farmers  of  Delaware 
County,  New  York,  Who  Taught 
Me    to    Love    the     Dairy    Cow 


11141 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

This  is  a  hand-book  for  dairymen  who  are  ambitious  to  increase 
their  profits. 

Primarily  it  is  intended  for  pupils  in  Smith-Hughes  vocational 
agriculture  courses  who  desire  to  enter  on  life  careers  of  successful 
dairy  farming,  or  to  combine  dairying  with  growing  one  or  more 
cash  crops. 

Its  author  is  himself  known  to  be  a  successful  dairy  farmer. 
He  is,  also,  an  expert  in  farm  management,  an  experienced  teacher 
of  vocational  agriculture,  and  a  successful  supervisor  of  teaching 
in  this  field. 

We  are  now  agreed  that  education  cannot  be  bestowed.  It 
must  be  achieved.  Pupil  initiative,  pupil  planning  seasonably 
done  and  applied  by  local  survey  and  job  analysis  methods, 
pupil  observations  and  experience  instantly  and  soundly  appraised 
with  a  view  to  betterment  of  methods  and  results,  preferably  in 
connection  with  sizeable  projects  on  home  farms  covering  com- 
plete cycles  of  production, — these  are  fundamental  factors  in 
effective  teaching  by  the  project  method. 

Accordingly,  in  this,  as  in  the  other  books  for  pupils  in  this 
Project  Series,  there  is  no  long  pull  of  text  that  might  tempt 
pupil  or  teacher  aside  into  mere  memorizing.  Each  section,  as  a 
rule,  provides  for  some  activity,  something  originated  by  the 
pupil  or  something  given  the  pupil  to  do.  Questions  are  raised, 
references  are  given,  problems  are  proposed,  practicums,  surveys, 
and  contests  are  planned,  which  make  it  necessary  for  every 
pupil  to  bestir  himself  in  order  to  get  into  his  mind  and  his  habits 
the  substance  of  the  course.  But  the  treatment  is  intended  to 
arouse  and  to  develop  the  utmost  initiative  on  the  part  of  both 
pupil  and  teacher. 


X  ■    EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

In  the  calendar  of  activities  of  the  first  chapter  and  elsewhere,  the 
author  has  undertaken  to  state  briefly  and  clearly  exactly  what  he 
would  do  under  given  conditions.  But  his  holdings  are  so  checked 
and  balanced  by  proposed  pupil  activities  during  the  learning 
period,  that  the  pupil  must  not  only  get  these  ideas  into  his  head, 
but  must  also  reason  about  them,  judge  them,  adapt  them  to  his 
conditions,  accept  or  reject  them  on  his  own  responsibility. 
Every  pupil  should  become  a  keen-witted  and  well-informed 
judge  of  dairy  farming  efficiency,  and  competent  in  dairy  farm 
work  and  management. 

Work  for  all  is  indicated  by  heavy  faced  type. 

There  is  a  fuller  program  in  italics  for  the  more  rapid  workers. 

Any  pupil,  we  believe,  who  covers  the  ground  shown  by  this 
study  guide-book  ought  to  be  allowed  at  least  one  unit  of  entrance 
credit  by  any  agricultural  college. 

The  skeletonized  form  of  the  calendar,  of  the  proposed  ques- 
tions, problems,  references,  and  the  like,  is  intended  to  prompt 
both  pupil  and  teacher  to  originate  and  to  insert  all  items  of 
local  and  personal  importance  essential  to  a  proper  program  of 
"Earning  and  Learning." 

RuFUS  W.  Stimson. 

April  10,  1923. 


CONTENTS 


Chapters  arranged  by  months  during  the  school  year  to  promote  seasonal 
study  of  dairy  farming  activities 

PAGE 

Explanations  and  Acknowledgments xiii 

Reference  Key xv 

List  of  Illustrations xvii 

Chapter  I.  Calendar  of  Dairy  Farming  Activities,  Project 
Work,  Practicums  or  Laboratory  Activities,  and 
Observations 3 


Chapter 

IL 

Chapter 

in. 

Chapter 

IV. 

Chapter 

V. 

Chapter 

VI. 

Chapter 

VII. 

Chapter 

VIII. 

Chapter 

IX. 

Chapter 

X. 

Chapter 

XL 

Chapter 

XII. 

Chapter 

XIII. 

SEPTEMBER 

Selecting  the  Dairy  Cows 30 

Studying  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle        ....  40 

Keeping  Dairy  Herd  Records 55 

OCTOBER 

Feeding  and  Watering  the  Dairy  Cow      ...  69 

Milking  and  Bedding  the  Cow 88 

Selecting  and  Handhng  the  Bull         ....  96 

NOVEMBER 

Providing   a   Sanitary    and    Handy   Stable   for   a 

Healthy  and  Profitable  Herd 104 

Saving  All  the  Fertility  in  the  Manure     .        .        .115 

Producing  Clean  Milk 127 


DECEMBER 

Selecting  Regions  Adapted  to  Dairy  Farming.  136 
Planning  a  Crop  Rotation  and  a  System  for  Main- 
taining Fertility 148 

Planning  a  Barn  for  a  Dairy  Farm     .        .        .        .162 


xii  CONTENTS 

JANUARY 

PAGE 

Chapter       XIV.     Drying  Up  the  Cow  and  Caring  for  Her  tefore  and 

during  Calving 175 

Chapter         XV.     Developing  the  Dairy  Heifer 181 

Chapter       XVI.     Keep  Farm  Accounts 188 


FEBRUARY 
Keeping  Farm  Accounts  (Continued) 


188 


MARCH 

Chapter     XVII.     Detecting  and  Treating  Diseases  of  Dairy  Cattle  .     207 
Chapter    XVIII.     Raising  the  Dairy  Calf         ....  .212 

Chapter       XIX.     Starting  in  the  Business  of  Raising  Pure  Bred  Dairy 

Cattle 220 

APRIL 

Chapter         XX.     Improving  the  Dairy  Herd  Through  Breeding  229 

Chapter       XXI.     Preparing  Dairy  Cattle  for  Show  or  Sale   .  .243 

Chapter     XXII.     Advertising  and  Marketing  Dairy  Cattle  and  Other 

Dairy  Products 248 


Chapter   XXIII. 
Chapter    XXIV. 


Chapter      XXV. 


MAY 

Caring  for  Pastures  and  Summer  Feeding  .  257 

Planning  the  Farmstead  and   Field   Layout  of  a 

Dairy  Farm 270 

Choosing  and  Buying  a  Dairy  Farm       .        .        .  282 


JUNE 

Chapter    XXVI.     Financing  the  Dairy  Farm  Business  .  .294 

Chapter  XXVII.     Organizing  a  Successful  Dairy  Farming  Business  .     303 

Index 323 


EXPLANATIONS   AND    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  author  has  prepared  this  handbook  for  two  kinds  of  dairy- 
men. Primarily,  it  is  for  vocational  agriculture  dairy  farming 
pupils,  who  are  enrolled  in  departments  of  high  schools,  or  in  the 
special  and  county  agricultural  schools.  But  it  could  not  be 
a  good  book  for  such  pupils  without  being  adapted,  also,  to  the 
needs  of  men  engaged  in  dairy  farming  who  are  out  of  school  and 
who  desire  to  improve  their  livestock  and  equipment,  their 
methods,  and  profits.  Therefore,  it  is  presupposed  that  every 
user  of  this  handbook  has  one  or  more  cows  in  his  care,  either  as 
his  own  home  project,  or  as  a  practical  dairy  herd  for  the  success- 
ful handling  of  which  he  is,  in  some  capacity,  directly  responsible. 

The  chapters  are  addressed  directly  to  the  vocational  agricul- 
tural pupil  who  is  in  school.  They  are  planned,  beginning  with 
Chapter  II,  to  give  him  the  selection  of  subject-matter  and  the 
seasonal  arrangement  of  activities  that  seem  best  suited  to  the 
regular  school  year,  beginning  in  September,  when  most  schools 
open.  But  the  "Calendar"  and  its  cross-references  in  Chapter  I 
should  be  a  guide  both  to  year-round  work,  and  to  the  study  of 
special  problems  as  they  naturally  arise. 

The  subject-matter  is  arranged  within  its  subdivisions  in  the 
order  suggested  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Heald  in  Bulletin  No.  3,  published 
by  the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  namely : 

What  must  be  done 
What  must  be  learned 
What  it  is  well  to  learn 

Or,  as  other  educators  might  prefer  to  state  it : 

How  to  do  the  work  properly 

Why  to  do  the  work  in  these  ways  or  the  reasons  therefor 

General  facts  of  interest  about  dairy  farming 

The  book  covers,  not  only  the  special  problems  and  methods 
of  feeding,  breeding,  care,  and  management  of  the  dairy  herd, 
but  also  farm  management  problems,  and  methods  of  organizing 
and  carrying  on  the  business  of  a  successful  dairy  farm. 


xiv  EXPLAxNATIONS  AND  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  Calendar  in  the  first  chapter  Usts  the  work  that  should  be 
done  each  month,  the  practicums  that  should  be  worked  out,  and 
the  observations  that  should  be  made.  These  items  may  be 
supplemented,  or  replaced,  by  many  other  items  of  "Project 
Work,"  "Practicums,"  or  "Observations,"  formulated  by  the 
pupils  or  by  the  vocational  teachers,  or  suggested  by  county 
agricultural  agents  or  successful  dairy  farmers,  either  to  fit  local 
conditions,  or  to  solve  local  problems. 

The  author  has  referred  to  other  books  or  iDulletins  by  asking 
definite  questions  and  giving  many  specific  references.  This  is 
to  save  time  and  to  encourage  the  pupil  to  broaden  the  range 
of  his  reading  and  reasoning.  Questions,  problems,  and  class 
exercises  are  printed  in  two  kinds  of  type.  Those  printed  in 
black-faced  type  should  be  covered  by  all  who  desire  a  thorough 
grasp  of  dairy  farming.  Those  printed  in  italics  may  well  be 
covered,  if  there  is  time  for  them.  The  latter,  however,  contain 
more  of  the  "general  vocational"  than  of  the  "how"  or  "why." 
The  work  and  study  outlined,  if  thoroughly  mastered,  should 
insure  generous  college  entrance  credit  in  the  cases  of  those  who 
enter  agricultural  colleges. 

The  key  to  all  references  is  given  on  pages  xv-xvi.  Suggestive 
initials  are  used  to  denote  the  author  or  the  title  or  both;  the 
numerals  used  with  the  initials  refer  to  page  numbers. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  appreciation  to  the  following 
persons,  institutions,  firms,  and  associations  for  illustrations  and 
charts  furnished  for  this  book:  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Holstein  Friesian  Association,  American  Jersey 
Cattle  Club,  Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association,  American  Guernsey 
Cattle  Club,  Newton  Farms,  Meridale  Farms,  Hargrove  and 
Arnold,  Carnation  Stock  Farms,  Dutchland  Farms,  Middlesex 
Meadows  Farms,  Falfurias  Farms,  Strathglass  Farms,  Penshurst 
Farms,  Tarbell  Farms,  Langwater  Farms.  To  the  editor  of  this 
project  series,  the  author  owes  the  plan  on  which  this  book  is 
organized. 

C.  E.  Ladd. 

April  10,  1923. 


REFERENCE  KEY 

B  Bailey,    L.    H.  —  Cyclopedia    oj   American   Agriculture;   The 

Macmillan  Company 

Bo  Boss,  Adrew  —  Farm  Management;  Lyons  and  Carnahan 

C  Curtis,  R.  S.  —  Live  Stock  Judging;  Lea  and  Febiger 

DC  Book  —  Diseases    of    Cattle;  United    States    Department  of  Agri- 

culture 

E  Eckles,  C.  H.  —  Dairij  Cattle  and  Milk  Production;  The  Macmillan 

Company 

EW  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Warren,  G.  F.  —  Dairy  Farming;  The  Macmillan 

Company 

G  Gardner,  F.  D. — Successful  Farming;  John  C.  Winston  Co. 

Ga  Gay,  Carl  W.  —  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock;  The 

Macmillan  Company 

H  Harper,  M.  W.  —  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools;  The  Macmillan 

Company 

HM         Henry,  W.  A.,  and  Morrison,  F.  B.  —  Feeds  and  Feeding;  The  Henry 
Morrison  Company 

Hu  Hunt,  T.  F.  —  How  to  Choose  a  Farm;  The  Macmillan  Company 

K221  Bulletin  —  Farm  Leases  in  Kansas;  Kansas  Bulletin  221 

Ki  King,  F.  H.  —  Physics  of  Agriculture;  F.  H.  King 

L  Ladd,  C.  E.  —  Dairy  Farming  Proiects;  The  Macmillan  Company 

Li  Livingston,  George  —  Field  Crop  Production;  The  Macmillan  Com- 

pany 


xvi  REFERENCE  KEY 

LFB        Lyon,  T.  L,,  Fippin,  E.  O.,  and  Buckman,  H.  O.— Soils,   Their 
Properties  and  Management;  The  Macmillan  Company 

M  Michels,  John  —  Dairy  Farming;  John  Michcls 

M158       Bulletin  —  Winter  Rations  for  Dairy  Heifers;  Missouri  Bulletin  158 

M167       Bulletin  —  Renting  Land  in  Missouri;  Missouri  Bulletin  167 

Mu  Mumford,  F.  B.  —  The  Breeding  of  Animals;  The  Macniillan  Com- 

pany 

P  Plumb,  C.  S.  —  Beginnings  of  Animal  Husbandry;  Webb  PubUshing 

Company 

Va  P        Van  Pelt,  Hugh  C.  —  How  to  Feed  the  Dairy  Cow;  Fred  L.  Kimball 
Company 

V27  Bulletin  —  Milk     Houses  for     Vermont     Dairy     Farms;     Vermont 

Bulletin  27 

W  Warren,  G.  F.  — Elements  of  Agriculture;  The  Macmillan  Company 

W-FM  Warren,  G.  F.  —  Farm  Management;  The  Macmillan  Company 

W-PD  Washburn,  R.  M.  —  Productive  Dairying;  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 

Wi  Wing,  H.  H.  — Milk  and  Its  Products;  The  Macmillan  Company 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Typical  grade  Guernseys  coming  in  to  be  milked        .        .        .       Frontispiece 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Learning  to  judge  Jerseys 31 

2.  World's  champion  Ayrshire  cow,  Garclaugh  May  Mischief       .32-33 

3.  A  good  udder 34 

4.  Dairy  cow  score  card 38 

5.  High  record  Ayrshire,  Auchenbrain  W  hite  Beauty  2nd  .        .        .42 

6.  Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate,  Ayrshire  cow 43 

7.  The  Imported  Jap  —  a  purebred  Jersey  bull  —  famous  foundation 

animal 45 

8.  World's  record  Guernsey  cow,  Murne  Cowan 46 

9.  High  producing  Guernsey  cow.  Countess  Prue       ....       47 

10.  Oak  De  Kol  Ollie  Homestead  —  purebred  Holstein   Friesian  bull      49 

11.  May  Walker  Ollie  Homestead.      Purebred  Holstein  cow  holding 

the  world's  record  for  butter  making  over  all  breeds  .       50 

12.  Springbrook  Bess  Burke  2nd,  one  of  the  largest  and  best  Holstein 

Friesian  cows 51 

13.  Daily  milk  weight  sheet 56 

14.  World's  champion  Ayrshire  cow 58 

15.  World's  champion  four  years  old  Ayrshire 59 

16.  Johanna  Bonheur  Champion  2nd  —  purebred  Holstein  Friesian  bull  60 

17.  A  World's  record  Holstein  Friesian  cow 61 

18.  Age  and  percentage  of  increased  production 63 

19.  "Low,"  "Medium,"  and  "High"  protein  feeds       ....  71 

20.  Pounds  per  ton  of  digestible  nutrients 73 

21.  River  bottom  hay  land 74 

22.  Oats  one  of  best  feeds  for  young  stock  and  dry  cows       ...  76 

23.  Corn  produces  a  large  amount  of  food  per  acre       ....  78 

24.  Water  that  makes  small  load  heavy  at  harvest  time  makes  cow 

give  more  milk  in  winter 79 

25.  Feed  and  labor  factors  per  100  pounds  of  3  per  cent  milk  86 

26.  Bull  of  fine  individuality  and  well  handled  with  staff  and  ring     .       96 

27.  Bull  calf  —  good  individual  from  high  producing  ancestry     .        .      100 

28.  Dairy  bull  score  card 102-3 

29.  Rutherford  system  of  stable  ventilation 105 

30.  King  system  of  stable  ventilation 106 

31.  Air  and  oxygen  requirements  in  twenty-four  hours  .        .        .        .107 

32.  Expensive  and  unsanitary  type  of  barn 108 

33.  An  unhandy  and  dangerous  type  of  barn  ......     109 

34.  A  well  planned  barn      ....  ...     Ill 

35.  A  New  England  dairy  farmstead  .        .       .       .113 

xvii 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

36.  Losses  of  farm  manure  by  fermentation  and  tracking     .       .       .116 

37.  Solid  and  liquid  parts  of  excrement  per  ton 117 

38.  Hauling  manure  spreader  with  a  tractor 118 

39.  Cutting  ensilage  corn  with  a  tractor 119 

40.  Value  of  excreta  from  several  farm  animals 123 

41.  Pounds  of  excreta  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  several  farm 

animals 124 

42.  Score  card  for  dairy  stables 128 

43.  Bacteria  added  to  milk  by  unsteamed  utensils 133 

44.  Favorable  topographical  and  market  conditions       ....  136 

45.  Receipts  from  sale  of  dairy  products  in  different  sections       .  138 

46.  Distribution  of  dairy  cows  in  the  United  States  in  1910  .  140 

47.  Mountainside  pasture  adapted  to  small  cows 141 

48.  Limestone  walls  indicate  soil  conditions  favorable  to  growing 

legumes 143 

49.  TjTjical  alfalfa  land  in  New  York 145 

50.  A  good  job  of  plowing 149 

51.  Lodged  grain  may  choke  out  seeding 152 

52.  Cabbage  furnish  a  cultivated  crop  in  the  rotation  .       .       .       .155 

53.  A  most  efficient  t\T3e  of  dairy  barn 162 

54.  A  round  barn  on  fiat  land 163 

55.  A  twelve  sided  barn 165 

56.  Concrete  silos 171 

57a.  Approximate  capacity  of  silos  of  different  sizes       ....  172 

57b.  Relation  of  size  of  silo  to  length  of  feeding  period  and  size  of  herd  172 

58.  A  growthy  AjTshire  calf,  Ringmaster's  Bloom  of  Brae  Burn  181 

59.  A  well  developed  heifer,  Ringmaster's  Britta  of  Brae  Burn  185 

60.  A  sample  summary  of  an  inventory 190 

61.  A  sample  account  with  potatoes 192 

62.  A  sample  work  record  with  wheat 194 

63.  A  sample  record  for  chores 194 

64.  A  farmer's  entries  for  a  day 195 

65.  Distribution  of  charge  for  use  of  buildings 201 

66.  Calf  being  raised  by  a  school  girl 212 

67.  Guernsey  calves  on  pasture 216 

68.  Seven  sons  and  daughters  of  a  prepotent  Holstein  Friesian  sire    .  221 

69.  A  daughter  that  is  a  credit  to  her  Holstein  Friesian  sire  225 

70.  A  famous  daughter  of  a  famous  Jersey  sire 226 

71.  Ormsby  Korndyke  Lad  —  fourteen  30-pound  daughters  in  1919  .  230 

72.  Masher's  Galore  8572  —  imported  Guernsey  bull     ....  232 

73.  Auckenbrain  Toreador,  said  to  be  the  best  Ayrshire  bull  ever 

brought  out  of  Scotland 234 

74.  Typical  Ayrshire  form,  udder  and  horns 236 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

75.  Rynoque  Lady  Peggy  —  fine  type  of  Ayrshire  cow  ....  237 

76.  Bella  II  du  Grand  Fort.     Imported  Guernsey  cow  ....  240 

77.  Advanced  registry  Quercus  Maid.     Purebred  Guernsey        .       ,  241 

78.  Use  an  attractive  letterhead 251 

79.  Milk  transported  by  motor  truck 254 

80.  Macadam  roads  facilitate  marketing 255 

81.  A  river  bottom  pasture 257 

82.  An  excellent  limestone  pasture 259 

83.  A  pasture  where  brush  needs  cutting 260 

84.  A  typical  pasture  in  Delaware  County,  New  York  ....  262 

85.  An  attractive  farm  house,  not  too  large 270 

86.  A  pleasant  farm  home  in  Vermont 271 

87.  A  commodious  and  comfortable  farm  home 273 

88.  Well  built  farm  buildings  add  to  the  value  of  the  farm  .                .  274 

89.  Topography  influences  field  layout 277 

90.  Large  level  areas  favorable  to  ideal  layout  of  fields  ....  278 

91.  Level  fields  permit  use  of  labor-saving  machinery     .        .                .  279 

92.  Efficient  combination  of  crop  land  and  pasture        ....  280 

93.  River  bottom  land  is  always  valuable 283 

94.  A  good  hay  crop  is  an  evidence  of  soil  fertility         ....  285 

95.  Score  card  for  farms 287-8 

96.  A  plentiful  water  supply  is  indispensable 290 

97.  A  first  step  toward  financing  a  farm  business 295 

98.  Efficient  ratio  of  man  power  to  horse  power 299 

99.  Method  of  figuring  labor  income 304 

100.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  labor  income 306 

101.  Variations  in  labor  income 307 

102.  Capital  related  to  labor  income 307 

103.  Relation  of  acres  in  crops  to  labor  income 308 

104.  Productive  work  unit  table 309 

105.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  efficiency  in  use  of  men  and  horses  310 

106.  Horse  power  ready  for  efficient  use 310 

107.  Relation  of  receipts  per  cow  to  profits 312 

108.  Relation  of  crop  yields  to  labor  income 314 

109.  Hops  as  a  cash  crop  to  give  diversity 315 

110.  Relation  of  profits  to  proportion  of  income  from  crops  .  317 

111.  Potatoes  grown  to  give  balance  and  diversity 318 

112.  Combined  effect  of  several  factors  on  labor  income  .        .                .  319 

113.  Relation  of  acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit  to  labor  income  and 

crop  yields 320 

114.  Relation  of  size  of  farm  receipts  per  cow,  and  crop  yields  to  labor 

income 320 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 


CHAPTER  I 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT   CALENDAR 
OR   SEASONAL  PROGRAM 

1.  —  Keep  Records  So  That  You  May  Study  and 
Improve  Your  Business 

You  should  have  constantly  in  mind  that  the  management 
of  a  dairy  farm  is  neither  scientific  nor  practical  unless  the  farm 
business  pays  a  profit. 

Records  of  various  kinds  are  advised  in  this  calendar.  These 
will  make  it  possible  to  study  the  success  of  the  business  as  a  whole 
or  in  any  of  its  parts.  The  results  of  these  records  will  give  you 
a  measure  of  your  success,  the  reasons  for  your  failures,  and  a 
foundation  upon  which  to  build  an  intelligent,  practical,  and 
scientific  program  for  a  more  successful  business  for  each  succeeding 
year. 


2.  —  Plan  Your  Business 

This  calendar  or  program  will  give  you  suggestions  as  to  things 
you  should  do,  things  you  should  learn,  and  observations  you  should 
make  each  month  of  the  year.  It  is  prepared  for  dairy  regions 
north  of  the  latitude  of  Washington.  For  particular  localities 
in  this  and  other  regions,  adjustments  may  be  made  in  the  column 
reserved  for  dates  at  the  left.  It  cannot  fit  all  farms  as  it  stands. 
It  is  printed  in  skeleton  form  to  help  you  more  easily  to  adapt 
it  to  your  particular  business.  "Plan  your  work  and  work  your 
plan." 

3 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

AUGUST 


Adjustments 
to  Particular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Select     the     cows 

Practice     scoring 

Note     the     condi- 

for the   project 

and     judging 

tion  of  the  proj- 

herd. 

dairy  cattle. 

ect  herd  as  com- 

L:30 

L:  30 

pared  with  good 
herds       in       the 
neighborhood. 
Compare     as     to 
size    of    individ- 

Study    the     differ- 

ual   and     condi- 

ence    between 

tion  of  flesh. 

beef    and    dairy 

types  at  the  ag- 

Make   up    record 

ricultural  fairs. 

blanks    for    the 

L:  30 

dairy  herd. 

L:  55 

Visit    several    corn 
fields        growing 
different      varie- 
ties   of    ensilage 
corn.      If    possi- 

Start     the      herd 

ble   visit   a   field 

Note  the  condition 

records. 

where         several 

of    the    pasture. 

L:  55 

varieties             of 
corn    are    grown 
on      the       same 
field.      Note 
the   maturity   of 
each      and      the 
relative       yields. 
Which      is      the 

Start  feeding  sup- 

best  corn  for  en- 

plementary 

sila'ge?      What 

green    feed,     if 

are    the    charac- 

the   pasture    is 

teristics      of      a 

short. 

good         ensilage 

L:  257 

corn? 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT  CALENDAR 

AUGUST   (Continued) 


Adiustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Begin  feeding  dry 

Study     different 

Watch  the  cows  as 

ration    to    cows 

crops    grown    in 

they   go   in   and 

that  will  freshen 

the     neighbor- 

out of  the  stable 

in  the  fall. 

hood  for  feeding 

to    see    whether 

L:  69 

to       supplement 

there       is       any 

pasture.      Which 

lameness      or 

is  most  satisfac- 

other     sign      of 

tory      for      this 

fouls. 

month?        What 

L:209 

will     you     raise 

Cool  your  milk. 

next      year      for 
feeding    during 
August? 

If  you  have   any 

manure    that 

has     accumu- 

lated     since 

spring     work 

started,    begin 

Are     any     of     the 

top-dressing 

fall    cows    begin- 

newly   seeded 

ning     to     spring 

land  with  it. 

bag? 

Start  plowing  for 

winter  grains. 

Measure  the  num- 

ber  of   tons   of 

hay  raised  this 

year  and  keep  a 

record    of    this 

figure    and    the 

acreage  in  hay. 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

SEPTEMBER 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 
By  the  Pupil 


Fill  the  silo. 


Continue  scoring 
and  judging 
dairy  cows,  bulls, 
and  young  stock 
on  near-by  farms. 


Compute  the  num 
ber  of  tons  of 
ensilage  in  the 
silo. 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the  Class 


Study  the  breeds 
of  dairy  cattle  at 
the  agricultural 
fairs. 

L:40 


Observations 
By  the  Pupil 


At  the  agricultural 
fairs  observe  how 
cattle  owners  fit 
their  stock  and 
show  it. 


Begin  your  proj 
ect  account! 
September  1. 


Made  a  study  of 
the  weather  re- 
ports for  your 
region  to  find  the 
average  date  of 
first  killing  frost 
in  fall.  Use  this 
in  deciding  when 
to  cut  corn  for 
the  silo. 


What  is  the  most 
economical  and 
satisfactory  soil- 
ing crop  being 
fed  in  your  com- 
m  unity  this 
month? 


In  what  stage  of  de- 
velopment was 
your  ensilage  at 
the  time  of  silo 
filling? 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECT  CALENDAR 

SEPTEMBER  (Continued) 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Make  a  complete 

List    all    the    cash 

Will  you  rai.se  the 

inventory  of  all 

crops    raised    in 

same  kind  of  en- 

live  stock,  sup- 

your     region     in 

silage   corn   next 

plies,equipment, 

the  order  of  their 

year? 

and  other  facili- 

importance. 

ties  involved  in 

your  project,  as 

of  September  1. 

Draw    a    map    of 

Select  seed  corn  for 

your  farm  show- 

next year. 

ing  the  field  ar- 

rangement. 

Make  a  record 

of  the  crop  on 

Are  your  dry  cows 

each    field    this 

in  good  flesh? 

year;     the 

amounts  of  ma- 

nure, lime,  and 

Select    seed    pota- 

fertilizer used 

toes     for     next 

on    each    field; 

year. 

and  the  appar- 

ent     state      of 

fertility. 

How  many  days  of 
growing   season 
do  you  have  be- 

tween    killing 

What      are      fresh 

frosts  in  your  re- 

cows   selling    for 

gion?     What  va- 

in     your      com- 

rieties of  corn  can 

munity? 

be      successfully 

raised  for  silage? 

for  grain? 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

OCTOBER 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Plan  a  grain  ra- 
tion for  your 
herd  with  es 
pecial  con 
sideration  as  to 
cost. 

L:69 


Study  the  various 
feeds  as  to  weight, 
color,  taste, 
source,  per  cent 
of  protein,  and 
pounds  of  total 
digestible  nutri- 
ents in  a  ton. 
L:69 


Do  as  much  fall 
plowing  as  pos- 
sible. 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the  Class 


Observations 
By  the  Pupil 


Observe  good 
milkers  on  neigh- 
boring farms  and 
see  if  you  can 
improve  your 
method. 


Score  several  dairy 
bulls  on  near-by 
farms. 


Get  a  record  of 
the  breeding 
dates  of  all  cows 
already  bred 
and  make  up  a 
record  booklet 
to  be  used  for 
keeping  the 
breeding  and 
calving  dates  of 
all  cows. 


Find  out  what  ra- 
tion is  fed  on 
several  near-by 
dairy  farms. 
Compare  this 
with  your  ration 
to  see  if  you  can 
improve  your 
own. 


As  soon  as  a  cow 
begins  to 
"spring,"  or 
make  up  an 
udder,  estimate 
the  time  when 
she  will  freshen. 
Keep  a  record  of 
this  date  and 
check  with  the 
actual  calving 
date  so  as  to 
better  your  judg- 
ment. 


Keep  close  watch 
of  the  cows  due 
to  freshen  this 
month. 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT  CALENDAR 

OCTOBER   (Continued) 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Select  the  bull  to 
be  used  with  the 
herd. 

L:96 


Project  Work 
By  the  Pupil 


Decide  when  you 
wish  each  cow 
to  freshen  again 
and  breed  ac- 
cordingly. 


Draw  a  floor  plan 
of  your  stable 
and  plan  a 
handy  arrange- 
ment for  the 
coming  winter. 
L:  104 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 


Make  a  trip  to  your 
own  pasture  and 
several  others 
in  the  neighbor- 
hood. What  can 
be  done  economi- 
cally to  improve 
these  pastures? 
L:257 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


In  which  one  of  the 
three  months, 
September,  Octo- 
ber, or  Novem- 
ber, do  the  good 
dairymen  of  your 
neighborhood 
have  most  cows 
freshen?    Why? 


Have  you  sufficient 
leguminous  hay 
to  feed  your  cat- 
tle through  the 
winter? 


10 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

NOVEMBER 


Adjustments 
to  Particular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Ac  ivities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Prepare  the  stable 

Compute  the  cubic 

As    you    begin    to 

for    winter    use 

feet  of  air  space 

feed   more   grain 

with     special 

per  cow^  and  the 

watch    the 

reference     to 

square     feet     of 

strainer      closely 

light,     ventila- 

window glass  per 

for    lumpy, 

tion,     warmth, 

cow  in  your 

bloody,     or 

and  ease  o^  do- 

stable. 

stringy  milk,  in- 

ing work. 

dicating  garget  or 

L:  104 

udder  trouble. 
L:207 

Make  a  trip  to  .scv- 

Note     the     condi- 

eralnear-by 

tion  of   the   hay 

dairy  barns  and 

o  r     other     d  r  y 

study  their  venti- 

roughage   as    to 

Handle    the    ma- 

lation, light,  and 

maturity,      pala- 

nure     produced 

stable      arrange- 

tability,  and 

so  as  to  save  all 

ment.     Compare 

apparent  digesti- 

the fertility. 

each     with     the 

bility. 

L:  115 

others  and  with 
your  own. 

Continue     fall 

Do  the  same  for  the 

plowing. 

ensilage. 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT  CALENDAR 

NOVEMBER   (Continued) 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 
By  the  Pupil 


Start   feeding     si- 
lage. 


Provide  a  box  stall 
and  special  feed 
and  care  for 
every  cow  at 
freshening  time. 
L:  175 


Place  all  farm  ma- 
chinery in  itt 
winter  quarters 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the   Class 


Observe  the  con- 
dition of  the 
manure  as  an  in- 
dication of  the 
effect  of  the  ra- 
tion on  the  cow. 
L:  69 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


Note  the  prices  of 
all  grain  feeds  so 
as  to  make  any 
change  in  the  ra- 
t  i  o  n  that  will 
give  good  eco- 
nomic results. 


12 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

DECEMBER 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Plan    the    places 

Compute   the    cost 

Note  the  prices  of 

where   the   ma- 

of milk  in  accord- 

the various  feeds 

nure  will  be  ap- 

ance    with     the 

so    as    to    make 

plied   this   win- 

Warren formula. 

any     economical 

ter. 

L:85 

changes    in     the 

L:  14S 

ration. 

On  your  farm  map 

list  the  crops  on 

each     field     for 

each  year  as  far 

back  as  you  can 

remember. 

What     things     are 

Make  plans  for  re- 

being  sold   from 

Also     record     the 

modeling     your 

farms     in     your 

manure,     fertil- 

diary barn  so  as 

neighborhood? 

izer,    and     lime 

to    make    it    an 

applied  to  each 

efficient,    health- 

field    for     each 

ful  stable  at  the 

year  as  far  back 

least  e.xpense. 

as  you  can  re- 

L: 104-162 

member. 

Plan  a  rotation  for 

Watch   your    cows 

your  farm. 

closely    for    any 

L:  148 

indication  of  lice. 
L:  185-218 

Increase  the  grain 

fed  to  each  cow 

slightly     and 

Measure     several 

watch     the 

near-by    d  a  i  r  y 

weight  sheets  to 

barns  so  as  to  de- 

see if  there  is  a 

termine  the  vari- 

profitable    in- 

ous     dimensions 

crease     in     the 

used  in  the  dairy 

Is  your  water  sys- 

milk   flow. 

stables.    Get  the 

tem    satisfactory 

Continue  to  in- 

owner's criticism 

as    to    quantity 

crease  the  grain 

of  each  one. 

and    method    of 

as  long  as  it  is 

watering     the 

profitable. 

cows? 

DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT  CALENDAR  13 

JANUARY 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

LocaUties 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Make     a     chart 

Estimate       the 

Observe    the    con- 

showing      the 

weight    of    your 

dition     of     cows 

crop     on     each 

heifers,    and    de- 

that    are     to 

field    last   year, 

cide     whether 

freshen     in     the 

and     proposed 

they  are  of  nor- 

spring.      If  they 

for  each  future 

mal  size.       Visit 

are  not  in  good 

year  until  your 

near-by     herds 

flesh,  start  feed- 

rotation   is    es- 

and    compare 

ing  the  dry  cow 

tablished. 

their  heifers  with 

ration. 

L:  148 

yours  of  the  same 
age. 

L:S3 

Begin    to   dry   off 

cows    that    will 

freshen  early  in 

the  spring. 

L:175 

Compute  the  ratio 
of    grain    fed    to 

Examine    all    dry 

milk     produced 

cows     carefully 

for  the  past 

to     determine 

month.       Is  this 

how   near   they 

satisfactory? 

Watch  your  water 

are   to   fre.shen- 

L:69 

supply  to  see  that 

ing.       Compare 

it  does  not  freeze 

this   with    your 

up  or  become  in- 

breeding dates. 

sufficient  for  the 
herd. 

Study  feed  prices 

Estimate  the  aver- 

to    determine 

age  cost  of  pro- 

whether     you 

ducing  milk  dur- 

should   make   a 

ing  the  past 

change  in   your 

month.        H  o  w 

rations.      Have 

does     this     com- 

feed    prices    in- 

p a  r  e  with  the 

creased    or    de- 

price paid? 

creased    in    the 

past      three 

months  and  how 

much? 

14 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

FEBRUARY 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

LocaUties 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

liy  the  Pupa 

By  the   Class 

Dates 

Take  an  inventory 

Estimate      t  h  o 

of  all  the  farm 

amount    of    hay 

property     and 

and  ensilage  that 

start  a  complete 

the      cows      will 

system  of  farm 

consume    during 

accounts       as 

the  remainder  of 

steps      towards 

the  year  and  the 

permanently 

amounts  that  will 

organizing    and 

he  left  at  the  be- 

systematizing 

ginning     of     the 

your      dairy 

pasture  season. 

farming       busi- 

L:69 

ness. 

L:  1S8 

Begin     to     work 

with     heifers 

that  will  freshen 

in  the  spring,  so 

;is  to  get  them 

accustomed     to 

having      the 

udder     manip- 

ulated. 

^ 

Observations 

By  the   Pupil 


Watch  the  cows 
when  they  eat 
dry  roughage  or 
ensilage  to  see 
that  they  clean 
it  all  up.  If  they 
do  not.  find  out 
whv. 


Note  the  advan- 
tages, if  anj',  of 
taking  a  com- 
plete inventory 
of  a  permanently 
organized  dairy 
farm  at  this  time 
as  compared  with 
taking  the  inven- 
tory, for  project 
purposes,  Sep- 
tember 1. 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECT   CALENDAR  15 

FEBRUARY   (Continued) 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

LocaUties 

Project  Work 

Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

Observations 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By   the   Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Overhaul  all  farm 
machinery  so  as 
to  have  it  ready 
for  spring. 

Study  the  order  of 
doing   chores   on 
various       dairy 
farms  in  the 
neighborhood    so 
as    to    decide 
whether  you  fol- 
low     the      best 
order  of  feeding 
hay,     grain,   and 
ensilage,  of  milk- 
ing,     cleaning 
stables,  and  other 
work. 

Does  the  ensilage 
freeze  badly 
around  the  walls 
of  the  silo? 

Order   grass    seed 

for  spring  sow- 

ing. 

Watch  your  cows 
for  signs  of  lice. 

Begin  to  study  the 
problem  of  what 

variety    of    en- 

silage corn  you 
will    raise    next 

year. 

16 


DAIRY  FARMINCx   PROJF.CTS 

MARCH 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Start  the  new- 
Ijorn  calves 
that  you  intend 
to  raise,  on  a 
good  ration. 
L:212 


Kill  the  horns  on 
all  calves. 
L:  217 


Keep  all  calf  pails 
clean . 


Buy  a  pure  bred 
calf  and  start 
raising  pure 
breds  if  you 
have  not  done 
so  and  it  is  pcjs 
sible. 

L:  220 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the  Class 


If  you  have  a  pure 
bred  calf,  trace 
its  complete  pedi- 
gree for  five  gen- 
erations. 


Observations 

By  the   Pupil 


Are  j-our  cows  in 
good  flesh  at 
freshening? 


Are  your  cows  giv- 
ing as  much  milk 
as  they  ought? 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT   CALENDAR 

MARCH    (Continued) 


17 


Adjustments 
to  Particular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the   Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Begin     feeding 

Make  a  survey  to 

Watch     all     calves 

horses     more 

determine  all  the 

for  signs  of 

grain     and 

pure   bred  cattle 

scours      or    ring 

hardening  them 

in     your     town- 

worm. 

for  spring  work. 

ship.        List  the 
number   of    each 
breed.    What  are 
the  reasons  why 
some  breeds  are 
more     popular 
than     others     in 
your  region? 

L:  217 

Begin    to    read    a 

Hve  stock  peri- 

odical    devoted 

chiefly    to    the 

Have  you  all  neces- 

breed  in  which 

s  a  r  y    fertihzer, 

you     are     most 

lime,    and    seeds 

interested. 

on  hand  for 
spring  planting? 

Order  seed  corn. 

18 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 

By  the  Pupil 


Begin  studying 
your  herd  rec- 
ords to  deter- 
m  i  n  e  which 
cows  shall  be 
kept  through 
another  winter. 


Fix    p  a  s  t  u 
fences. 


Sow  oats  and 
other  spring 
grains. 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the   Claxs 


Write  advertise- 
ments for  three 
separate  individ- 
uals from  your 
herd. 

L:24S 


Clip  two  or  more 
heifers  and  pre- 
pare them  as  if 
for  sale  or  show 
ring. 

L:243 


Observations 

By  the   Pupil 


Has  your  silage 
been  satisfactory 
in  feeding  value 
this  winter? 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT   CALENDAR  19 

APRIL   (Continued) 


Adjustments 
to  Particular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

LocaUties 

Activ  ties 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Study     all     your 

Make  a  trip  to  one 

Will  you  raise 

the 

meadows  to  see 

or  more  auctions 

same  kind  of  corn 

if  any  have  been 

of    dairy    cattle. 

ne.xt  year? 

winter  killed  so 

Estimate  the  sell- 

that they  must 

ing  price  of  each 

be  plowed. 

animal     before 
sale    and    record 
this  with  the  real 
selling     price. 
Compute  the  per- 
centage   of    your 
error      on      each 
animal. 

Make  any  neces- 

sary changes  in 

your  rotation  as 

a  result  of 

studying      the 

condition     of 

your    meadows. 

Always  prepare  a 

good    seed    bed 

before      sowing 

• 

seed. 

20 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

MAY 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the   Class 

By  the  Pupil 

Dates 

Turn  out  to  pas- 

Make  a   field   trip 

Study    the    milk 

ture   as  soon  a.s 

to    several     pas- 

sheets to  see  how 

the  grass  has  a 

tures  and    study 

much    gain     the 

good  start. 

their  condition 

cows     make     on 

and    the    grasses 

pasture. 

found  there. 

Estimate     the 

number  of  stock 

they  will  carry. 

Plan   supplement- 

ary grain   feed- 

ing    for     cows 

Make     field     trips 

that  give   large 

to  several  farms 

quantities     of 

to     study     field 

milk. 

layouts. 

L:  SO 

L:  270 

Take     inventor.y 

Begin  to  study  the 

again     of      the 

Monthly     Crop 

amount  of  hay 

Reporter   of   the 

on     hand     and 

U.     S.     Depart- 

estimate    the 

ment  of  Agricul- 

amount that  the 

ture  to  find  out 

horses    will    eat 

the  condition  of 

before  the  new 

farm  crops  in  all 

hay  is  h  a  r- 

states. 

vested. 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT  CALENDAR  21 

MAY   (Continued) 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 

By  the  Pupil 


Plan  a  rearrange- 
ment, if  needed, 
of  fields  to  get 
the  most  effi- 
cient layout  on 
the  project 
farm. 
L:  270 


Plant  corn. 


Prepare  a  good 
seed  bed  for 
each  crop. 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the   Class 


Make  a  list  of  rainy- 
daj'  jobs  for  the 
summer. 


Make  a  trip  to  sev- 
eral fields  that 
are  being  plowed 
or  harrowed  to 
determine  what 
constitutes  good 
plowing  and  a 
good  seed  bed. 


Observations 
By  the  Pupil 


Are  there  any  wet 
spots  in  your 
fields  that  could 
be  drained? 
Would  it  pay  to 
drain  them? 


Are   your   cows 
good  flesh? 


22 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

JUNE 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the   Class 

By  the   Pupil 

Dates 

Feed  a  small 

Visit  several 

Does     your      milk 

amount  of  sup- 

meadows     and 

flow  increase  on 

p  1  e  m  e  n  t  a  r  y 

estimate  the 

pasture? 

grain  to  any 

amount    of    hay 

cows  producing 

each     will     pro- 

over 40  pounds 

duce. 

of  milk  per  dav. 

L:  SO 

' 

Visit  several  corn- 

In what  month  did 

fields     to     study 

the     cows     that 

what  constitutes 

show  the  greatest 

a  good  stand.    Is 

increase  freshen? 

the  corn  too  thick 

or  too  thin? 

Cool  your  milk. 

Study  the  Crop  Re- 

Do all  the  fields  of 

porter. 

grain  in  the 
neighborhood 
have  a  good 
color?    What  are 
the    reasons    for 
any  spots  show- 
ing poor  color? 

DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT   CALENDAR 


23 


JUNE   (Continued) 


Adjustments 
to  Particular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Localities 

Activities 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the  Class 

By  the   Pupil 

Dates 

Cultivate    to    kill 

List  all  the  legumes 

What     are     friesh 

the  weeds  in  all 

that  grow  in  your 

cows    selling    for 

crops  where  pos- 

community with- 

in your  com- 

sible.       Do  not 

out  application  of 

munity?  List  the 

let    the    young 

lime  to  the  soil. 

price  of  calfskins, 

weeds    get 

deacon  skins,  and 

started. 

List  all  the  legumes 
that  will  grow  if 
lime  is  added. 

Obtain     prices     on 
ground  lime- 
stone,     burned 
lime,      and     hy- 
drated     lime     at 
your  nearest  rail- 

cowhides.     How 
do  these  compare 
with  the  prices  of 
a  year  ago? 

Is   your    binder   in 
good    shape    for 
grain  harvest? 

road  station. 

'"// 

DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

JULY 

^jusi^nts 
^»  PaScular 

Practicums  and 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observations 

Ac  ivities 

By  the   Pupil 

By  the   Class 

By  the  Pupil 

OM^ 

Mow  the  weeds  in 

Make     a     trip     to 

Do  the  cows  keep 

the  pasture. 

several  meadows 

in  good  flesh  on 

L:  2.57 

that  are  ready  to 
be     cut    and    to 
several  where  the 
grass    has    l^een 
mowed  and  is  in 
cocks     or    wind- 
rows.     Estimate 

pasture? 

Start  feeding  soil- 

the     probable 

i  n  g    crops    o  r 

yield  in  tons  per 

silage     to    sup- 

acre and  the 

plement    the 

quality    of 

pastures    if  the 

the  hay.     Check 

pastures  are  get- 

these   estimates 

ting  short. 

with    the    owner 
of  the  farm. 

Has  the  pasture  be- 
gun to  decrease  in 
feeding     value? 

Cool  your  milk. 

Study  the  Crop  Re- 
porter. 

What  are  the 
causes? 

Begin    summariz- 

ing   records    of 

individual  cows 

that  have  com- 

pleted   a   lacta- 

tion period  since 

records     were 

started. 

DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT  CALENDAR 


25 


JULY  (Continued) 


Adjustments 

Practicums  and 

<F ^ 

to  Particular 

Project  Work 

Laboratory 

Observatioils 

Localities 

By  the   Pupil 

Activities 
By  the  Class 

'^^       * 

By  the  Pupil 

By  the  Pupil  ""^ 

Dates 

Will    you    discard 

Make     a     trip     to 

--4 

Did    any    of    your 

any    of    these 

pastures  in  your 

hay  get  too  ripe 

cows  before  win- 

community. 

before  cutting? 

ter?     Why? 

Study  each  as  to 
the     amount     of 
feed   which   it  is 
furnishing,    need 
for     supplement- 

Finish   harvesting- 

ing  this  feed  and 

clover  and  timo- 

apparent produc- 

thy this  month. 

tivity  of  the  soil. 
Suggest  methods 
of     improving 
each  pasture  eco- 
nomically. 

Continue    cultiva- 

tion,    always 

killing  the 

weeds  when 

they  are  small. 

Is   corn   making  a 
good  growth? 

Plan    any   needed 

building  repairs, 

rearrangement 

of     fields,     and 

drainage  for  the 

next     two 

month.s. 

Get  granaries  and 

grain  bins  ready 

for    threshing 

time. 

26 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

AUGUST 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

Ey  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 

By  the  Pupil 


On  August  31  take 
your  final  in- 
ventory for  the 
year's  accounts 
with  the  project 
herd. 


Summarize     the 
project  records. 


Find  the  average 
number  of  cows 
giving  millc  at 
the  beginning 
and  end  of  the 
year.  This 
should  inchide 
all  cows  in  the 
herd  that  have 
ever  given  milk 
whether  or  not 
they  are  pro- 
ducing milk  at 
the  beginning  or 
end  of  the  year. 
Use  this  figure 
in  all  cases  as 
the  number  of 
cows  in  the 
herd. 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the  Class 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECT  CALENDAR 

AUGUST  (Continued) 


27 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 

By  the  Pupil 


Find  the  total  for 
the  year  and  the 
average  per  cow 
for  each  of  the 
following  fac- 
tors: 

a)  Pounds  of  milk 
produced 

6)  Value  of  milk 
produced 

f)  Pounds  of 
grain   fed 

d)  Pounds  of  hay 
and  other  dry 
roughage  fed 

e)  Pounds  of  sil- 
age fed 

f)  Cost  of  all  feed 

fif)  Hours  of  man 
labor 

h)  Value  of  man 
labor 

i)  Total  cost  of 
keeping  the 
herd 

j)  Profit  or  loss 
for  the  year 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 

By  the   Class 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


28 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

SEPTEMBER 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 
By  the  Pupil 


Study  the  ssum- 
marized  ac- 
counts and  the 
factors  worked 
out  for  your 
herd.  Compare 
these  with  aver- 
age figures  for 
your  state  or 
region  if  such 
are  available. 
What  are  the 
weak  points  in 
your  manage- 
ment of  the 
dairy  project? 
What  are  the 
strong  points? 
How  will  you 
strengthen  the 
business  and  in- 
sure greater 
p  r  o  fi  t  s  next 
year? 


From  your  records 
compute  the 
probable 
amount  of  con- 
centrates which 
you  will  need  to 
buy  next  winter. 
Study  the  mar- 
ket  reports. 
Would  there 
seem  to  be  any 
advantage  i  n 
buying  now? 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECT  CALENDAR 

SEPTEMBER  (Continued) 


29 


Adjustments 

to  Particular 

Localities 

By  the  Pupil 


Project  Work 

By  the  Pupil 


Practicums  and 
Laboratory 
Activities 


Have  you  enough 
hay  on  hand  to 
feed  through  the 
coming   winter? 


Will  you  increase 
your  herd  next 
year?  Give  rea- 
sons. 


Observations 

By  the  Pupil 


CHAPTER  II 
SELECTING  THE  DAIRY  COWS 

1.  Select  high-producing  cows 

(1)  Select  for  dairy  form 

(2)  Select  for  angularity 

(3)  Select  cows  with  large  digestive  capacity 

(4)  Select  cows  with  good  udders 

(5)  Select  for  other  important  body  parts 

(6)  Select  cows  of  good  dairy  qualitj''  and  vigor 

(7)  Select  cows  with  good  teeth 

2.  Foundations  upon  which  to  base  judgment 

When  a  farmer  engages  in  the  dairy  business  he  must  select  his 
cattle  carefully  in  order  to  have  in  the  herd  only  those  which  are 
capable  of  producing  a  profitable  return  for  the  feed  and  care  ex- 
pended upon  them.  If  you  are  undertaking  the  management  of  a 
herd  already  assembled  or  if  you  must  purchase  each  cow  for  your 
herd  individually,  the  problem  of  judging  and  selecting  those 
which  give  promise  of  sufficient  production  is  the  first  important 
work  to  be  done.    There  are  two  ways  of  judging  cattle: 

First,  by  the  record  of  their  production  through  the  previous 
year  and  by  the  records  of  their  ancestors. 

Second,  by  certain  external  characteristics  that  are  considered 
to  be  indicative  of  producing  capacity. 

The  first  method  is  by  far  the  more  desirable.  Unfortunately, 
however,  few  dairy  farmers  keep  individual  records  of  their  cows. 
The  farmer  who  is  selecting  a  herd  must  therefore  depend  very 
largely  upon  the  second  method.  Selection  based  upon  records  will 

30 


SELECTING  THE   DAIRY  COWS 


31 


be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter  after  the  discussion  of  record 
keeping. 


Fig.  1.  —  Students  learning  to  judge  Jerseys  at  a  famous  stock  farm. 


1.  —  Select  High-producing  Cows 

In  selecting  the  dairy  cow  from  outward  conformation  you 
should  observe  certain  points.  In  order  to  do  efficient  work 
a  dairyman  must  have  judgment  as  to  what  constitutes  the  most 
desirable  shape,  size,  weight,  and  condition  of  certain  body  parts. 
In  studying  any  one  characteristic,  compare  many  cows  so  as  to 
cultivate  your  judgment  in  regard  to  that  essential. 

(1)  Select  for  dairy  form.  —  The  dairy  cow  should  be  wedge- 
shaped  when  viewed  from  three  different  positions.  If  viewed 
from  either  side,  the  cow  should  have  greater  depth  of  body  at 
the  hind  quarters  than  at  the  front  quarters.  The  floor  of  the 
chest  should  be  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  udder,  and  the 
top  of  the  withers  should  be  lower  than  the  top  of  the  hips.  In 
this  way  the  cow's  body  seems  to  be  somewhat  wedge  shaped 
with  the  broad  end  of  the  wedge  at  the  rear  and  the  narrow  end 


32  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

of  the  wedge  at  the  front.  If  viewed  from  the  front,  the  dairy 
cow  should  widen  gradually  from  the  chest  to  the  hips.  If  viewed 
from  the  top,  she  should  also  widen  from  the  withers  to  the  hips. 
This  wedge  shape,  which  is  observed  from  three  different  positions, 
is  spoken  of  as  a  triple  wedge. 

(2)  Select  for  angularity.  —  A  good  dairy  cow  should  be 
angular  and  spare,  and  should  carry  no  surplus  flesh,  even  though 
showing  evidence  of  good  feeding  by  her  general  physical  con- 


FiG.  2a.  — World's  champion  Ayrshire  cow,  Garclaugh  May  Mischief,  27944. 
25,328  lbs.  milk,  1,053  lbs.  butter. 

dition.  This  angularity  is  the  opposite  of  the  smooth,  regular, 
bricklike  conformation  of  the  beef  cow.  Any  thickening  of  the 
withers  or  tendency  to  roundness,  where  the  cow  should  be 
angular,  is  spoken  of  as  beefiness.  Angularity  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  thinness  of  flesh  resulting  from  insufficient  food.  Also, 
natural  angularity  may  be  somewhat  concealed  by  an  extra 
amount  of  flesh  which  the  cow  may  take  on  during  the  dry  period. 
A  good  dairy  cow  never  carries  much  flesh  when  in  a  full  flow  of 
milk.    Her  tendency  is  to  use  additional  feed  for  the  production 


SELECTING   THE  DAIRY  COWS  33 

of  additional  milk  rather  than  of  additional  flesh.  Such  a  cow, 
even  though  possessing  angularity  to  the  point  of  thinness  of 
flesh,  will  have  a  vigorous,  healthy  appearance.  She  is  a  finely 
constructed  milk-producing  machine,  stripped  of  superfluous  flesh, 
and  able  to  manufacture  into  milk  all  the  feed  not  necessary  to 
support  her  body. 

1.  Why  are  the  hip  and  tail  bones  prominent  in  a  dairy  animal 
and  not  in  the  beef  animal?     W  :  324. 


Fig.  2b  —  Other  side  of  the  same  cow.     Compare  markings,  milk  veins, 
large  body,  small  head  and  neck. 

2.  How  can  you  determine  whether  a  cow  is  in  poor  condition  or 
possesses  real  angularity?     EW  :  50. 

(3)  Select  cows  with  large  digestive  capacity.  —  A  dairy  cow 
should  have  a  large  capacious  paunch,  or  abdomen,  so  that  she 
will  be  capable  of  eating  large  quantities  of  roughage  and  other 
unconcentrated  foods.  After  studying  the  two  previous  require- 
ments, dairy  form  and  angularity,  you  may  be  able  to  select  a 
cow  which  shows  the  conformation  best  adapted  for  dairy  purposes. 
This  finely  constructed  machine,  however,  is  useless  unless  it  is 


34 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


capable  of  using,  every  day,  large  quantities  of  food.  JNIilk  cannot 
be  produced  without  food;  and,  ordinarily,  the  greater  the  amount 
of  food  that  the  cow  is  capable  of  eating,  the  greater  will  be  the 
amount  of  milk  or  butterfat  that  she  will  produce. 

(4)    Select  cows  with    good  udders.  —  The  udder  should    be 
large,  well  formed,  and  regular  in  shape.     It  should  be  attached 

high  up  behind  and  ex- 
tend well  back  of  the 
legs.  It  should  be  level 
on  the  bottom  and  ex- 
tend far  in  front.  The 
teats  should  be  of  con- 
venient size  and  well 
shaped,  so  that  the 
quarters  are  compara- 
tively even. 

When  the  udder  is 
empty,  it  should  be 
loose,  pliable,  and  soft. 
If  the  udder  after  milking 
is  still  unpliable  and 
rather  firm  to  the  touch, 
it  is  known  as  a  fleshy 
udder.  This  is  undesira- 
ble, as  it  indicates  that 
the  milk-producing 
glands  are  poorly  de- 
veloped. The  udder 
should  be  long  from 
front  to  back  in  order  to 
give  a  long  Une  of  absorption.  It  is  especially  important  that 
the  udder  have  well-developed  front  quarters.  One  of  the  most 
common  defects  is  poorly  developed  front  quarters.  This  seems 
to  be  more  common  in  some  breeds  of  cattle  than  in  others. 

The  milk  veins  extending  from  the  udder  forward  should  be 
large,  tortuous,  branching,  and  long.      The  milk  wells,  or  the 


i 

Fig.  3.  —  A  good  udder:  good  shape,  well- 
balanced,  hung  high  up  behind  and  ex- 
tending well  forward.  See  also  Figs.  2, 
5,  6,  8,  9,  11,  12,  15,  17,  69,  70,  74,  75, 
76,  77. 


SELECTING  THE  DAIRY  COWS  35 

openings  through  which  these  veins  pass  into  the  interior  of  the 
abdomen,  should  be  large.  The  size  of  these  milk  veins  is  some 
indication  of  the  amount  of  blood  that  passes  through  the  udder. 

1.  Do  the  milk  veins  carry  blood  or  milk?     EW  :  51. 

2.  Why  are  the  milk  veins  important  in  selecting  dairy  cattle? 

M  :  13. 

3.  Hoiv  long  should  a  good  udder  bef    H  :  137. 

(5)  Select  for  other  important  body  parts.  —  There  are  various 
other  parts  of  the  body  which  are  ordinarily  considered  by  the 
dairyman  to  be  somewhat  indicative  of  producing  capacity.  The 
cow  should  have  an  open  chine — that  is,  the  vertebrae  along  the 
back  should  be  somewhat  open.  Often  the  edge  of  the  hand  can 
be  placed  in  between  the  flanges  of  these  vertebrae.  This  is  sup- 
posed to  indicate  an  openness  or  looseness  of  organization  of  the 
framework.  Openness  is  further  indicated  by  the  length  of  the 
tail  bone.  Many  practical  dairymen  make  a  strong  point  of  the 
tail  bone  being  long  enough  to  reach  the  hock.  The  withers  should 
be  thin  and  free  from  meatiness.  The  legs  should  be  short  and 
straight  with  small  shanks.  The  rump  should  be  long  and  level. 
The  hip  bones  should  not  be  lower  than  the  spine.  The  entire 
body  line  of  the  cow  from  withers  to  tail  should  be  straight  with 
no  humps  or  sags. 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  good  hind  quarters  for  a  dairy 

cow?     H  :  136. 

2.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  dairy  head?     H  :  135. 

(6)  Select  cows  of  good  dairy  quality  and  vigor.  —  Quality  is 
determined  by  the  condition  of  the  skin,  hair,  and  bone.  The 
skin  should  be  thin,  soft,  and  oily.  It  should  be  of  a  yellow  color 
in  the  Hning  of  the  ear,  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs,  and  at  the 
root  of  the  tail.  The  hair  should  not  be  coarse,  but  should  be 
short,  soft,  and  silky.  The  skin  secretions  should  be  abundant. 
The  bones  should  not  be  too  heavy  or  coarse,  although  in  this 
respect  there  is  much  variation  among  the  different  breeds. 


36  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

The  cow  should  possess  good  constitutional  vigor,  as  indicated 
by  the  chest  capacity.  Place  the  hand  between  the  front  legs 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  width  of  the  floor  of  the  chest.  Narrow- 
ness here  indicates  small  chest  capacity  and  a  lack  of  constitutional 
vigor.  The  cow  should  be  alert  and  of  a  quick,  nervous  tempera- 
ment as  indicated  by  the  eyes,  the  ears,  or  the  way  in  which  the 
head  is  carried. 

1.  How  do  the  different  body  parts  of  a  good  dairy  cow  compare 

with  the  same  parts  in  a  good  beef  animal?     W  :  323. 

2.  What  are  the  indications  of  good  constitutional  vigor?     M  :  13. 

3.  What  is  the  escutcheon  and  what  is  its  importance? 

W-PD.  :  37.     M  :  14. 

(7)  Select  cows  with  good  teeth.  —  Always  examine  a  cow's 
teeth  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  she  is  capable  of  chew- 
ing her  food  to  good  advantage.  Many  old  cows  bring  a  good 
price  on  the  market  if  their  teeth  are  sound,  long,  and  in  good 
condition,  while  a  young  cow  whose  teeth  are  badly  worn  down 
will  not  command  a  price  in  excess  of  her  beef  value.  The  useful 
life  of  a  cow  in  a  dairy  herd  depends  upon  the  condition  of  her 
teeth.  This  is  what  the  dairyman  refers  to  when  he  states  that 
the  cow  has  a  good  mouth  or  a  sound  mouth.  It  is  also  possible 
to  determine  the  age  of  young  cattle  by  means  of  the  teeth.  The 
calf  is  often  born  with  two  teeth  and  at  an  early  age  it  is  pro- 
vided with  four  incisor  teeth  on  the  lower  jaw  only.  Cattle  never 
have  any  front  teeth  on  the  upper  jaw.  When  the  animal  is  about 
eighteen  months  old  the  early  milk  teeth  are  replaced  by  two 
much  larger  permanent  teeth.  Other  permanent  teeth  appear  at 
approximately  regular  intervals  of  nine  months.  Thus  the  age 
of  the  animal  is  estimated  from  the  number  of  teeth  as  follows: 

18  months  old first      pair  of  permanent  teeth  in  use 

27  months  old second  pair  of  permanent  teeth  in  use 

36  months  old third     pair  of  permanent  teeth  in  use 

45  months  old fourth  pair  of  permanent  teeth  in  use 

1.  Is  it  possible  to  estimate  a  cow's  age  by  her  horns?     H  :  131. 


SELECTING  THE   DAIRY  COWS  37 

2.  —  Foundations  upon  Which  to  Base  Judgment 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  dairy  cow  has  been  developed 
from  an  animal,  which  produced  just  barely  enough  milk  to  feed 
her  own  calf  from  birth  until  it  was  able  to  live  upon  pasture,  to 
our  present  highly  efficient  producers.  That  is,  man  through 
rigid  selection  and  careful  breeding  has  improved  the  dairy  cow 
from  an  animal  that  gave  approximately  1000  pounds  of  milk 
in  a  year  to  one  that  now  probably  averages  for  our  whole  country 
between  4000  and  5000  pounds  in  a  year;  and  many  well-selected, 
efficient  and  practical  herds  produce  per  cow  from  8000  to  10,000 
pounds  of  milk  each  year.  One  celebrated  Holstein  cow  has  even 
produced  the  enormous  quantity  of  33,000  pounds  in  twelve 
months.  This  very  remarkable  development  of  milk-producing 
capacity  has  been  accompanied  by  certain  fixed  characteristics  as 
to  the  conformation  of  the  dairy  animal.  Many  generations  of 
cattle  breeders  and  students  of  breeding  have  studied  the  relation- 
ship between  this  conformation  and  producing  capacity.  As  a 
result  of  this,  we  have  come  to  use  the  characteristics  previously 
described  in  this  chapter  as  the  chief  indications  of  producing 
capacity. 

These  factors  are  given  various  values  by  different  judges.  Many 
authorities  upon  this  subject  have  formulated  score  cards  for  dairy 
cattle  or  for  individual  breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  in  such  a  way  that 
a  certain  number  of  points  is  given  to  each  characteristic.  Such 
a  score  card  is  very  viseful  when  studying  the  various  characteristics 
for  the  first  few  times.  In  practical  selecting  or  judging,  however, 
the  skilled  dairyman  soon  ceases  to  use  such  score  cards  and 
makes  his  selection  on  the  basis  of  a  well-considered  judgment, 
formulated  and  balanced  within  his  own  mind  after  careful  obser- 
vation and  consideration  of  all  the  essential  factors. 

1.  How  does  the  development  of  the  modern  dairy  cow  compare 

with  that  of  the  primitive  cow?     GA  :  197. 

2.  Use  the  score  card  on  page  38,  and   score   four  mature  dairy 

cows. 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 


Animal Date. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


Pos- 
sible 
score 


Points  deficient 


Student's      Cor- 
score         rected 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE— 17   POINTS 

WEIGHT estimated actual 

FORM,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side  and  top. 

QUALITY,  hair,  fine,  soft;  skin,  mellow,  loose,  medium 
thickness;  secretion,  yellow;  bone,  clean,  fine 

TEMPERAMENT,  nervous,  indicated  by  marked  refine- 
ment in  head,  neck,  and  fore-quarters;  backbone,  promi 
nent 


HEAD   AND    NECK— 13   POINTS 

FACE,  clear  cut,  long,  quiet  expression 

MUZZLE,  clean  cut;   mouth,  large;  nostrils,  wide 

EYES,  large,  bright,  full 

FOREHEAD,  broad,  slightly  dishing 

EARS,  medium  size;   yellow  inside;   fine  texture 

NECK,  fine,  medium  length;  throat, clean;  dewlap,  light 

FORE  QUARTERS— 7   POINTS 

SHOULDER,  light,  sloping,  thin  at  top 

BREAST,  full;  brisket  lean,  and  light 

LEGS,  straight,  short;  shank,  fine 

BODY— 20   POINTS 


CHEST,  deep  and  moderately  wide 

RIBS,  broad,  deep,  wide  apart,  extending  well  dowi 

barrel 

BACK,  prominent,  open-jointed 

LOIN,  broad  and  roomy 


large 


HIND    QUARTERS— 43   POINTS 

HIPS,  wide  apart,  prominent;  level  with  the  buck 

RUMP,  long,  wide;   pelvis,  roomy 

TAIL,  set  high,  long,  tapering,  heavy  switch 

THIGHS,  thin,  long,  wide  apart;   twist,  very  open 

ESCUTCHEON,  spreading  over  thighs,  extending  high  and 

wide;  large  thigh  ovals 

UDDER,  broad,  symmetrical,  extending  well  forward,  well 

up  between  the  thighs,  free  from  fleshiness,  well  held  up 

and  quarters  even  in  size 

TEATS,  good  size,  evenly  placed  and  normal 

MILK  VEINS,   large,  tortuous,  branching,  milk  wells,  large 

and  numerous 

LEGS,  straight,  wide  apart;  shank,  fine 


Total. 


Fig.  4.  —  Dairy  Cow  Score  Card. 


SELECTING  THE   DAIRY  COWS  39 

3.  Using  an  outline  map  of  a  dairy  cow,  name  all  the  important 

body  parts.     EW:  55. 

4.  Visit  a  large  dairy  herd  and  compare  the  "dairy  form"  of  all 

the  animals  of  equal  age  until  you  have  acquired  judgment 
as  to  the  degree  of  perfection  in  each  individual.  Do  the 
same  for  angularity,  digestive  capacity,  udder  development, 
constitutional  vigor,  quaUty,  condition  of  teeth,  and  other 
body  parts. 

5.  Estimate  the  weight  of  five  different  cows.     Check  this  with 

actual  weights  or  the  estimate  of  a  farmer  or  cattle  buyer 
who  is  an  expert  judge  of  Uve  weight.  Repeat  this  exercise 
until  you  have  attained  a  fair  degree  of  judgment. 

6.  Place  in  the  order  of  perfection  a  ring  of  five  cows  and  give 

your  reasons  for  this  placement.  Repeat  this  until  your 
instructor  thinks  you  have  attained  a  fair  degree  of  judgment. 

7.  What  is  the  record  production  of  milk  in  a  year  by  cows  of  each  of 

the  principal  dairy  breeds?    G  :  659-668. 

8.  How  may  size  of  udder  be  determined  in  a  cow  that  is  dry?    Ga  :  206. 

9.  What  two  kinds  of  tissues  may  be  found  in  the  udder  and  how  should 

these  compare  in  quantity  in  a  productive  udder?    Ga  :  207. 

10.  Attend  an  auction  of  grade  cattle.     Inspect  each  animal  briefly  and 

make  an  estimate  of  the  selli^ig  price.  Record  the  true  selling  price 
of  each  animal  in  a  column  parallel  to  the  column  containing  your 
estimates.     Compute  your  percentage  of  error  on  each  animal. 

11.  Examine  the  teeth  of  all  the  cattle  in  your  project  herd  that  are  under 

four  years  old.  How  does  their  development  compare  with  the 
figures  given  in  this  chapter  for  estimating  a  cow's  age  by  her  teeth? 

12.  Examine  the  teeth  of  all  the  older  cattle.     Can  you  find  examples  of  a 

"broken  mouth"?  of  a  mouth  where  the  teeth  are  worn  down  badly? 


CHAPTER  III 
STUDYING  BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 

1.  Ayrshire  cattle 

2.  Jersey  cattle 

3.  Guernsey  cattle 

4.  Holstein-Friesian  cattle 

5.  The  modern  cow — a  wonderful  example    of    improvement 

by  selection 

We  commonly  divide  cattle  into  three  classes  according  to  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  raised.  These  are  dairy  cattle,  beef 
cattle,  and  dual-purpose  cattle.  Dairy  cattle  are  kept  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  milk  products  and  do  not  ordinarily  produce 
the  best  quaUty  of  beef.  Beef  cattle  are  kept  primarily  for  the 
production  of  beef  and  produce  very  small  quantities  of  milk. 
Dual-purpose  cattle  are  supposed  to  produce  both  milk  and  beef 
economically. 

The  value  of  dual-purpose  cattle  is  very  questionable.  The 
high  development  of  either  the  milk-secreting  function  or  the 
beef-growing  function  is  always  at  the  expense  of  the  other.  For 
that  reason,  the  dual-purpose  cattle  are  quite  likely  to  be  mediocre 
in  both  milk  and  beef  production. 

There  is  a  wide  difference  in  type  between  dairy  breeds  and 
beef  breeds  of  cattle.  The  beef  animal  should  be  square-built, 
brick-shaped,  and  rectangular  and  should  show  no  spareness  or 
angularity.  Its  value  is  indicated  by  the  thick,  smoothly  laid 
layers  of  flesh  which  cover  and  conceal  the  bony  framework.  As 
opposed  to  this,  the  dairy  type  is  spare  and  angular  and  carries 
no  surplus  flesh.  Good  animals  of  the  dairy  type  use  an  extra 
amount  of  feed  to  increase  their  flow  of  milk  rather  than  to  add 
to  their  bodily  weight.  Dairy  animals  have  a  marked  develop- 
ment of  the  abdomen  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 

40 


STUDYING  BREEDS   OF   DAIRY   CATTLE  41 

The  udder  of  the  dairy  animal  is  of  extraordinary  size  and 
development.  The  milk  veins  are  large  and  noticeable.  The  beef 
animal  carries  a  small  inconspicuous  udder,  the  function  of  which 
is  to  produce  only  enough  milk  to  give  the  calf  a  good  start  in 
life. 

The  leading  dairy  breeds  are  Ayrshire,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 
Holstein-Friesian.  Dutch  Belted  and  Brown  Swiss  are  also  classed 
as  daily  breeds,  but  they  are  of  minor  importance.  Among  the 
more  important  breeds  of  beef  cattle  are  Shorthorns,  Herefords, 
Aberdeen- Angus,  and  Galloway.  Under  dual-purpose  cattle  are 
generally  classified  Milking  Shorthorns,  Red  Polled,  Devons,  and 
Polled  Durhams. 

1.  Are  cattle  native  to  America?     E  :  9. 

2.  Where  did  cattle  originate?     E  :  9. 

3.  From  what  different  types  of  cattle  have  our  present  breeds 

descended  and.  what  were  the  fundamental  differences  be- 
tween these  types  or  species? 
E  :  10.     B  :  III.  302.     P  :  46. 

1.  —  Ayrshire  Cattle 

Ayrshire  cattle  are  ordinarily  red  and  white  or  some  combi- 
nation of  red,  white,  brown,  and  black  in  color.  Many  are  of  a 
rather  deep  brindle  color,  while  some  are  almost  pure  white.  They 
are  of  medium  size.  The  cows  weigh  about  1000  pounds  on  the 
average  and  the  bulls  about  1500  pounds.  The  horns  are  gener- 
ally white  with  black  tips  and  curve  outward  and  upward.  They 
are  long  and  symmetrical,  and  their  distinctive  and  beautiful 
shape  constitutes  a  commonly  used  method  of  recognizing  the 
breed. 

The  body  is  large  and  deep  and  the  ribs  are  well  sprung.  The 
rump  is  usually  long  and  broad;  the  hind  quarters  are  heavy; 
the  entire  body  is  a  httle  too  round  and  beefy  and  somewhat 
too  lacking  in  angularity  to  be  considered  the  best  dairy  type. 

Ayrshire  cattle  carry  the  most  sjTiimetrical  and  best  balanced 
udder  of  all  the  breeds.    It  is  carried  well  up  to  the  body,  hung 


42 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


high  and  well  back  behind,  and  almost  level  on  the  bottom  line. 
The  quarters  are  very  symmetrical  and  the  teats  well  placed. 
Many  Ayrsliire  cattle  have  been  rightfully  criticized  for  having 
too  short  teats,  but  this  fault  is  being  overcome  by  careful  breed- 
ing and  selection.  In  disposition  the  Ayrshire  is  alert,  active, 
and  energetic;  yet  generally  kind  and  tractable  to  handle. 
The  Ayrshire  cow  does  not  rival  the  Holstein  as  a  milk  pro- 


FiG.   5.  —  High  record  Ayrshire,  Auchenbrain  White  Beauty  2nd,  21687. 


ducer  nor  the  Jersey  or  Guernsey  in  percentage  of  butter  fat. 
A  good  Ayrshire  cow  should  give  from  6000  to  7000  pounds  of 
milk  in  a  year,  testing  approximately  four  per  cent.  In  only  a  few 
instances  have  Ayrshires  given  more  than  20,000  pounds  of  milk 
in  a  year. 

This  breed  originated  in  Scotland  in  the  county  of  Ayr,  where 
the  land  is  rolling  and  rough  and  the  climate  rather  severe.  These 
conditions  demand  and  have  produced  hardy,  active  cattle,  and 
the  Ayrshire  cow  has  come  to  be  known  as  a  good  rustler.  She 
has   the    reputation    of   being   able    to   exist    and  produce  milk 


STUDYING   BREEDS   OF   DAIRY  CATTLE  43 

on  steeper,  rougher  pastures  and  on  coarser  forage  than  can  any 
other  breed. 

How  the  breed  originated  is  unknown,  but  it  is  thought  that 
it  combines  the  blood  of  Teeswater,  Shorthorn,  Dutch,  Lincoln, 
Hereford,  Devon,  and  West  Highland  breeds.  It  has  now  been 
bred  pure  for  many  years  and  its  characteristics  have  become 
fixed. 


Fig.  6.  —  Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th,  27943  A.  R.  23,022  lbs.  milk, 
1,080  lbs.  butter.  Red  or  brown  instead  of  white  sometimes  predominates 
in  Ayrshire  coloring. 


Ayrshire  cattle  were  first  introduced  into  America  between 
1820  and  1830  and  have  continued  to  be  imported  nearly  every 
year  up  to  the  present  time.  They  are  now  very  widely  scattered 
throughout  our  country  and  are  favorably  known  in  every  locaUty. 

1.  Under  what  conditions  was  the  Ayrshire  breed  developed? 

B  :  III,  335.     G  :  659.     EW  :  27. 

2.  For  what  regions  and  conditions  is  the  Ayrshire  best  adapted? 

EW  :  29. 


44  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

3.  When  and  by  whom  were  the  first  importations  of  Ayrshires 
made?     B  :  III,  335. 

4.  What  are  the  two  types  of  Ayrshire  cattle  and  the  characteristics  of 
each?    B:  III,  336. 

2.  —  Jersey  Cattle 

Jersey  cattle  are  the  smallest  in  size  of  our  important  dairy 
breeds,  the  cows  weighing  from  700  to  1000  pounds  and  the  bulls 
from  1100  to  1500  pounds.  Their  color  ranges  from  light  fawn 
to  dark  gray  or  black.  The  tongue  and  the  switch  of  the  tail  are 
black  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Some  Jersey  cattle  are  spotted 
with  white  and  are  said  to  have  a  "broken  color."  This  was  at 
one  time  seriously  objected  to,  and  some  breeders  continue  to 
discriminate  against  a  broken-color  animal.  The  majority  of 
breeders,  however,  at  the  present  time  give  little  importance  to  this. 

The  Jersey  cow  is  considered  to  be  a  perfect  dairy  type.  She 
is  e;:ceedingly  spare  and  angular  in  shape.  She  has  a  straight, 
strong  back,  and  a  long,  level  rump.  Her  udder  is  large  in  size 
and  extends  well  forward  and  well  up  behind.  Her  teats  are 
ordinarily  of  medium  size  and  well  placed.  The  Jersey,  like  the 
Ayrshire,  is  occasionally  criticized  for  having  too  short  teats. 
The  head  is  exceptionally  fine;  short,  broad,  and  dish-faced.  The 
muzzle  is  black  in  color;  the  eyes  are  very  prominent,  large,  bright, 
and  wide  apart;  the  legs  are  short,  fine-boned,  and  small;  the 
skin  is  mellow,  loose,  and  yellow,  and  is  covered  with  short,  fine, 
silky  hair.  In  disposition,  the  Jersey  is  quick,  energetic,  and 
nervous. 

Jerseys  should  produce  from  5000  to  6000  pounds  of  milk  in  a 
year,  testing  about  five  per  cent  of  fat.  They  produce  milk  which 
is  richer  in  butter  fat  than  that  produced  by  any  other  breed. 
The  fat  globules  are  large  and  yellow  and  give  a  rich  color  to 
the  entire  milk. 

Jersey  cattle  were  developed  on  the  island  of  Jersey,  one  of  the 
Channel  Islands  south  of  England  and  only  a  short  distance 
from  the  coast  of  France.  For  many  years  the  cattle  of  this  island 
have  been  very  carefully  bred  until  th(nr  characteristics  are  fixed 


STUDYING  BREEDS  OF  DAIRY   CATTLE  45 

and  their  quality  is  superior.  For  more  than  a  century  no  cattle 
have  been  imported  into  this  island  and  hence  no  outside  blood 
has  been  introduced.  The  island  is  small  with  an  approximate 
area  of  forty-five  square  miles.  It  contains  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  cattle.  For  the  past  sixty-five  years  a  limitation  has 
been  put  on  the  number  that  msLy  be  exported.  The  chief  busi- 
ness of  the  island  is  the  breeding  and  improving  of  cattle.  The 
breeders  of  the  island  are  very  strict  about  registration,  and  every 


Fig.  7.  —  Foundation  animal  that  has  become  famous.     The  Imported  Jap. 
Purebred  Jersey. 

animal  before  being  registered  must  be  carefully  inspected  by 
competent  judges  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  qualified. 

Jerseys  were  first  imported  into  America  about  1850.  They 
at  once  became  popular  and  have  been  imported  in  considerable 
numbers  nearly  every  year  since  that  time.  To-day  they  out- 
number any  other  breed  of  cattle  in  this  country  and  our  native- 
born  Jerseys  now  surpass  the  imported  stock  in  size  and  pro- 
duction. They  have  become  so  widely  scattered  that  wherever 
cows  are  kept  Jersey  characteristics  may  be  recognized.  The 
Jersey  cow  seems  to  adapt  herself  to  a  variety  of  climatic  con- 


46 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


ditions  more  easily  than  does  any  other  breed  and  hence  this 
breed  is  very  widely  found  throughout  the  world. 

1.  What  action  has  been  taken  on  the  island  of  Jersey  to  improve 
the  Jersey  breed?     H  :  lOS.     K  :  43. 

2.  Under  ivhat  conditions  can  a  Jersey  cow  be  registered  on  the  island  of 

Jersey?     H  :  109.     E:43. 

3.  How  many  Jerseys  have  been  registered  in  the  United  States?    E  :  45. 


Fig.  8.  —  A  World's  Record  Guernsey  Cow,  Murne  Cowan. 


4.  What  are  the  two  types  of  Jerseys  and  what  are  their  characteristics? 

E:47. 

5.  Name  some  famous  Jersey  cows  and  give  their  records. 

G:668.     E:53.     H  :  110. 

3.  —  Guernsey  Cattle 
Guernsey  cattle  are  larger  than  Jerseys  and  smaller  than  Hol- 
stein-Friesians.     The  cow  weighs  on  the  average  about  1000  pounds 


STUDYING  BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


47 


and  the  bull  about  1500  pounds.  In  color  the  Guernsey  varies 
from  dark  red  to  Hght  yellow  with  white  markings.  She  is  gen- 
erally some  shade  of  fawn.  The  muzzle  is  ordinarily  buff  or  flesh 
color.  A  dark  muzzle  does  not  disquaUfy  the  Guernsey  for  regis- 
tration but  is  considered  undesirable  by  many  critical  judges.  The 
skin  is  a  rich,  golden  yellow  in  color  and  has  an  abundance  of 
yellow  secretions. 

Guernsey  breeders  have  emphasized  symmetry  and  uniformity 
of  type  less  than  have  Jersey  breeders.     As  a  result  the  Guernsey 


Fig.  9.  —  A  high  producing  Guernsey,  Countess  Prue.     As  to  markings  com- 
pare with  Fig.  8. 

COW  does  not  have  the  fine,  clean  cut,  dairy  type  developed  to  such 
an  extreme  degree  as  does  the  Jersey.  Her  body  is  also  a  little 
more  coarse.  Many  individuals  of  the  breed  have  been  criticized 
because  the  back  was  sagged  somewhat  instead  of  having  the 
strong,  straight  Unes  of  some  of  the  other  dairy  breeds.  This  fault 
is  being  corrected,  however,  by  careful  breeding. 

Guernseys  mature  a  little 'more  slowly  than  do  Jerseys.  Their 
disposition  is  not  as  nervous  as  that  of  the  Jersey  but  is  more  mild 
and  tractable. 


48  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

Guernsey  cows  should  produce  from  5500  to  6500  pounds  of  milk 
per  year  containing  about  five  per  cent  of  fat.  A  few  of  this  breed 
have  produced  more  than  20,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year.  Guern- 
sey milk  and  butter  have  a  higher  color  than  have  the  products  of 
any  other  breed.  The  Guernsey  cow  has  been  developed  under 
almost  exactly  the  same  conditions  as  the  Jersey  cow.  The  first 
Guernseys  were  introduced  into  America  in  1833  but  did  not 
become  popular  or  widely  distributed  until  many  years  later. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  located  in  the  New  England  States, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesota.  During  the  past  few  years  many  importations  have 
been  made  and  much  enthusiasm  has  been  aroused  in  developing 
the  interests  of  the  breed.  In  several  instances,  Guernsey  cows 
have  held  (for  a  short  time)  the  world's  championship  record  in 
butter  fat  production  in  competitions  of  all  the  breeds. 

1.  Under  what  conditions  were  Guernsey  cattle  developed? 

K  :  56. 

2.  Name  some  famous  Guernsei/  cou's  and  their  records, 
E  :  60.     G  :  665. 

4.  —  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle  are  invariably  black  and  white  in  color. 
Animals  that  are  entirely  white  or  entirely  black  cannot  be  regis- 
tered. They  are  extremely  large  and  vigorous,  the  cows  ranging 
from  1200  to  1500  pounds  in  weight  and  the  bulls  from  1800  to 
2200  pounds.  They  do  not  ordinarily  possess  quite  the  extreme 
of  spareness  and  angularity  commonly  seen  among  Jerseys,  yet 
they  possess  a  good  dairy  type  with  strong,  straight  backs  and 
long,  broad,  level  rumps,  extremely  wide  hips,  well-sprung  ribs, 
rounded  bodies,  and  a  good  wedge  shape. 

The  udder  is  large  and  carried  well  forward  and  well  up  in  the 
rear,  but  it  is  not  generally  as  symmetrical  and  as  well-formed  as 
the  udder  of  the  Jersey  or  the  Ayrshire.  The  milk  veins  are  large 
and  tortuous.     The  head  is  larger,  coarser,  and  of  a  different  type 


STUDYING  BREEDS   OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  49 

from  that  of  the  Jersey.     The  cow  is  kind,  tractable,  and  unex- 
ci table  in  disposition. 

Holsteins  give  a  larger  amount  of  milk  than  any  other  breed  of 
cattle  and  at  the  present  time  hold  all  of  the  world's  records  for 
milk  and  butter-fat  production.  The  milk  is  low  in  percentage  of 
butter  fat,  averaging  about  three  and  six-tenths  per  cent  for  the 
breed,  but  this  small  percentage  is  compensated  for  by  the  ex- 


FiG,  10.  —  Purebred  Holstein  Friesian  Bull,  Oak  Dekol  Ollie  Homestead. 

tremely  large  quantity  produced.  Several  individuals  of  the  breed 
have  produced  more  than  30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year.  A 
business  herd  of  Holsteins  should  average  8000  pounds  of  milk 
per  year.  The  fat  globules  in  Holstein  milk  are  small,  and  as  the 
milk  is  rather  low  in  percentage  of  butter  fat,  it  lacks  the  richness 
of  color  so  common  in  Jersey  or  Guernsey  milk.  Many  dietitians 
have  claimed  that,  because  of  the  smallness  of  the  fat  globules, 
Holstein  milk  is  more  healthful  for  infants  than  the  milk  of  any 


50 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 


other  breed.      The  butter  produced  from  Holstein  milk  does  not 
possess  the  richness  of  color  of  Jersey  or  Guernsey  butter. 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle  originated  in  Holland  and  near-by  terri- 
tory, being  especially  well  developed  in  the  province  of  Friesland 
and  the  duchy  of  Holstein  in  northern  Germany,  For  many  years 
they  have  been  bred  and  kept  on  the  rich,  level,  well-watered 


\ 

1^ 

i 

■ 

^ 

fl 

^^^p^'  '"^^ 

m 

M 

} 

Pi 

g 

1^^^^ 

n 

^^1 

M 

IP 

<^ 

1 

H 

■ 

|M:  \ 

,    -IT'    '        '                '  -  — 

Fig.  11.  —  May  Walker  Ollie  Homestead.  Purebred  Holstein  cow  holding  the 
world's  record  for  butter  making  over  all  breeds.  31,610.6  pounds  of  milk, 
and  1523.23  pounds  of  butter.     Owned  by  Minnesota  Holstein  Company. 

pastures  of  Holland.  It  was  not  necessary  for  the  Holsteins  to 
walk  long  distances  in  order  to  obtain  their  feed.  Feed  was  at  all 
times  abundant  and  very  nourishing.  As  a  result,  we  have  a 
large,  heavy  breed  of  cattle  that  is  better  adapted  for  level  or 
gently  roUing  pasture  than  for  steep,  rocky  hillsides. 

Holstein  cattle  were  imported  into  the  United  States  as  early 
as  1795  and  again  in  1825.  But  important  importations  were  not 
made  until  the  period  from  1850  to  1860.     From  1875  until  1885 


STUDYING   BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE 


51 


about  10,000  head  were  imported.  From  these  are  descended 
nearly  all  the  Holsteins  found  in  the  United  States  to-day.  Since 
1885  few  have  been  imported.  The  Holsteins  of  America  now  far 
surpass  the  Holsteins  of  Europe  in  production. 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  there  was  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  name  that  ought  to  be  applied  to 


Fig.  12. 


■  Springbrook  Bess  Burke  2nd.      One  of  the  largest  and  best  Holstein 
Friesian  cows. 


these  cattle.  One  body  of  breeders  called  them  Holstein  and 
another  body  called  them  Dutch  Friesian  cattle.  Two  associa- 
tions were  in  existence  and  two  sets  of  herdbooks  started.  Finally 
in  1885  the  two  factions  were  combined  and  the  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  of  America  formed. 

Holstein  cattle  in  Holland  are  considered  to  be  very  good  beef 
producers.  Because  of  the  large  size  of  their  bodies  and  the  large 
amount  of  meat  that  they  furnish  when  slaughtered,  they  may 


52  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

perhaps  be  called  more  truly  than  any  other  a  dual-purpose  breed. 
They  are  never  so  classified,  however,  as  they  are  the  most  highly 
developed  milk-producing  breed  of  dairy  cattle. 

1.  Where  and  under  what  conditions  did  Holstein-Friesian  cattle 

originate?     H  :  1 11 .     W-PD  :  46. 

2.  What  colorings  are  allowable  in  Europe  for  Holsteins  that  are 

not  allowable  in  America?     H  :  112. 

3.  For  what  conditions  are  Holstein  cattle  especially  adapted? 

W-PD:  51. 

4.  Name  some  Jamous  Holsteins  and  give  their  records.     H  :  113. 

5.  —  The  Modern  Cow — a  Wonderful  Example  of 
Improvement  by  Selection 

The  original  wild  cattle  roaming  the  forests  of  western  Europe 
probably  produced  only  a  sufficient  amount  of  milk  to  support 
the  calf  until  it  could  five  upon  grass.  From  these  wild  cattle, 
man  has  developed  a  number  of  breeds  which  produce  milk 
throughout  the  year  and  now  a  single  cow  produces  milk  in  quan- 
tities sufficient  to  raise  a  dozen  calves  instead  of  her  individual 
offspring  alone.  This  result  has  been  accomplished  largely  through 
careful  selection,  through  improvement  in  feeding,  and  through 
change  of  environment  of  the  cow. 

Different  races  of  people  have  developed  breeds  of  cattle  of 
different  characteristics.  As  transportation  was  difficult  and  the 
countries  of  Europe  were  often  at  war  with  each  other,  naturally 
the  cattle  of  any  one  locality  became  somewhat  fixed  in  their 
characteristics.  No  systematic  effort  seems  to  have  been  made 
to  improve  cattle  by  breeding  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  when  Robert  Bakewell  of  Leicestershire, 
England,  began  the  work  of  animal  breeding,  which  has  m.ade 
his  name  famous  in  agricultural  history.  By  firmly  adhering  to 
a  desired  type  and  by  a  careful  process  of  selection  he  was  able 
within  his  lifetime  to  make  a  very  remarkable  improvement  in 
the  cattle  of  his  country.    Moreover,  he  proved  the  possibilities 


STUDYING   BREEDS   OF   DAIRY  CATTLE  53 

and  the  value  of  careful  breeding  so  that  as  a  result  many  of  his 
neighbors  and  countrymen  carried  on  the  work  that  he  had  begun. 
In  our  own  country  the  founding  of  the  various  hve-stock 
associations  and  the  keen  interest  that  was  developed  in  the  im- 
provement of  stock  and  the  making  of  records  have  resulted  in  a 
very  wonderful  improvement  of  dairy  cattle  within  the  past  thirt}'- 
five  years.  In  the  past  ten  years  we  have  seen  record  after  record 
made  and  broken  with  such  rapidity  that  a  champion  rarely  holds 
her  place  for  more  than  a  few  months.  The  Holstein-Friesian 
Association,  through  its  development  and  popularizing  of  the 
seven-day  test  for  butter  production,  has  brought  forth  many 
records.  A  few  years  ago,  a  cow  that  could  produce  30  pounds 
of  butter  in  seven  days  was  considered  a  marvel.  To-day  we 
have  many  cows  that  have  produced  over  40  pounds  of  butter 
in  seven  days.  We  have  many  cows  that  have  produced  more 
than  100  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day;  several  that  have  produced 
more  than  1200  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year;  and  a  number  that 
have  produced  more  than  30,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 

1.  Score  a  ring  of  four  or  five  cows  of  each  breed  separately,  using 

the  score  card  given  in  Chapter  II. 

2.  Make  a  census  of  all  the  breeders  of  pure  bred  cattle  in  your 

school  district  or  township  together  with  the  number  of  ani- 
mals owned  by  each  breeder. 

3.  What  breed  of  cattle  is  most  numerous  in  your  region?     For 

what  breed  is  the  region  best  adapted  and  why? 

4.  Fitid  out  all  you  can  about  each  of  the  following  animals  and  ivhy 

each  is  famous:  Jacoba  Irene;  King  of  the  Pontiacs;  Dolly 
Dimple;  Tilly  Alcartra;  May  Echo  Sylvia;  Sophie  19th  of  Hood 
Farm;  Murne  Cowan;  Spermfield  Oid's  Eva;  Auchenbrain 
Brown  Kate  4th;  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby. 

5.  What  is  the  value  of  land  in  the  countries  from  which  Holstein  cattle 

originally  came?     E  :  28. 

6.  Is  the  Holstein  breed  distributed  widely  throughout  the  world? 

W-PD  :  51. 


54  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

7.  What  are  the  minimxim  requirements  for  the  admission  of  a  Holstein 

cow  to  Advanced  Registry  f     W-PD  :  55.     E  :  36. 

8.  What  are  the  different  types  of  Holsteins  and  their  importance? 

P:65.     E:31. 

9.  Hoto  old  is  the  Holstein  breed  and  xohat  is  its  origin?     E  :  27. 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  seven-day  test? 

E:37. 

11.  What  was  the  foundation  stock  for  the  Guernsey  breed?     W-PD  :  62. 

12.  How  large  is  the  island  of  Guernsey  and  how  many  cattle  are  kept 

on  it?     W-PD:  04.     E  :  50. 

13.  Compare  these  figures  with  those  for  your  home  county;  with  those  for 

some  of  the  other  dairy  counties  in  your  state. 

14.  Describe  the  Advanced  Registry  System  of  the  Guernsey  Association 

and  the  requirements  for  admission.     W-PD  :  69.     E  :  59. 

15.  Under  what  one  name  were  Jerseys  and  Guernseys  known  when  first 

introduced  into  America?     W-PD  :  62.     E  :42. 

10.    What  precautions  have  been  taken   on   the  islands  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey  to  keep  their  cattle  pure?     E  :  42. 

17.  How  large  is  the  island  of  Jersey  and  how  many  cattle  are  kept  on  it? 

E  :  43.     W-PD  :  75. 

18.  How  do  these  figures  compare  with  the  number  of  acres  and  the  number 

of  cattle  in  your  home  county  and  in  other  dairy  counties  in  your 
state? 

19.  Describe  the  plan  of  registration  on  the  island  of  Jersey. 

E  :  44.     W-PD  :  70. 

20.  Describe  the  Registry  of  Merit  System  of  the  Jersey  Association. 

E:52. 

21.  What  xvas  the  origin  of  Ayrshire  cattle?     W-PD  :  90. 

22.  Describe  the  Advanced  Registry  System  of  the  Ayrshire  Association. 

W-PD  :  94. 


CHAPTER  IV 
KEEPING  DAIRY  HERD  RECORDS 

1.  Keep  dairy  records 

2.  Keep  accurate  records 

(1)  Sample  the  milk  carefully 

(2)  Weigh  and  test  at  least  once  a  mgnth 

(3)  Keep  record  of  feed  consumed 

3.  Summarize  the  records  at  the  end  of  the  year 

4.  Determine  how  much  milk  or  butter  fat  a  cow  should  pro- 

duce in  a  year 

5.  Make  Babcock  tests  for  butter  fat  in  milk 

(1)  Points  to  be  noted  specially  in  making  Babcock  tests 

1.  —  Keep  Dairy  Records 

In  purchasing  cows  or  selecting  the  cows  that  he  will  keep  in 
his  herd  the  good  dairyman  judges  each  individual  on  the  basis 
of  the  degree  to  which  it  corresponds  to  the  various  points  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  II.  These,  however,  are  simply  the  best  out- 
ward indications  of  a  good  dairy  animal.  Experiments  have 
proved  that  animals  with  certain  characteristics  are  generally 
high  producers.  There  may  be  and  often  are  exceptions  to  this 
general  rule.  Some  cows  with  good  conformation  are  poor  pro- 
ducers and  some  cows  with  poor  conformation  are  good  producers. 

The  final  proof  of  the  cow's  quality  is  the  actual  record  of  her 
production.  An  accurate  record  of  the  amount  of  milk  or  butter 
fat  produced  in  a  year  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  cow's  worth. 
Moreover,  an  accurate  record  may  be  compared  with  the  owner's 
judgment  as  to  the  cow's  individuality  and  in  this  way  his  judg- 
ment may  be  constantly  checked  up  and  improved. 

55 


56 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


1.  Why  is  it  impossible  to  estimate  a  cow's  yearly  production  from 
the  production  of  any  short  period  during  the  year?     M  :  60. 

2.  —  Keep  Accurate  Records 

In  order  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  production  of  each 
cow  we  need  only  a  ruled  milk  sheet,  a  spring  balance,  and  a 
Babcock  tester.     Use   a  milk  sheet  ruled  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


Month:    January 
Days:    1-8,  1922 


Thursday 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Friday 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Saturday 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Sunday 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Mondaj' 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Tuesday 

A.M. 

P.M. 

Wednesday 

A.M. 

No.  3       No.  4       No.  5       No.  6       No.  7 


Fig.  13.  —  Daily  milk  weight  sheet. 

These  may  be  purchased  from  most  dairy  supply  houses  or  they 
may  be  easily  ruled  at  home.    At  the  top  of  each  sheet  is  written 


KEEPING   DAIRY  HERD   RECORDS  57 

the  name  of  the  month.  At  the  head  of  each  vertical  column  is 
written  the  name  or  the  nmnber  of  the  cow.  On  the  left  margin 
are  written  the  days  of  the  month,  and  opposite  each  day  are 
two  horizontal  lines,  one  for  the  morning  amount  of  milk  and 
one  for  the  night  amount.  In  this  way  the  morning  and  night 
weights  of  milk  are  placed  under  each  other  and  the  column  may 
then  be  added  easily  to  obtain  the  total  production  per  cow  per 
month.  Some  dairymen  prefer  to  use  a  milk  sheet  which  is  only 
long  enough  for  one  week,  as  a  milk  sheet  that  stays  up  in  the 
barn  for  a  month  becomes  very  much  soiled  and  somewhat 
illegible. 

(1)  Sample  the  milk  carefully.  —  Since  the  value  of  milk  in 
nearly  all  cases  depends  to  a  certain  extent  upon  its  butter-fat 
content,  it  is  necessary  to  test  the  milk  for  its  percentage  of  butter- 
fat  as  well  as  to  weigh  it.  Testing  should  be  done  by  means  of 
the  Babcock  tester,  according  to  the  method  described  at  the 
end  of  this  chapter. 

When  only  a  small  portion  of  milk  is  used  for  the  test,  the  one 
who  tests  must  be  exceedingly  careful  to  make  this  portion  -a  fair 
sample  of  the  whole  lot.  To  do  this,  the  milk  should  be  poured 
from  one  pail  into  another  several  times  and  then  a  sample  taken 
at  once  with  a  small  sampling  dipper  holding  from  one-half  ounce 
to  one  ounce. 

It  is  not  generally  necessary  or  feasible  to  test  the  milk  daily. 
The  more  practical  way  is  to  take  a  daily  sample,  place  this  in 
a  sample  bottle  with  a  small  amount  of  preservative  and  in  this 
way  add  to  the  sample  every  day  for  the  month,  and  test  at  the 
end  of  the  month.  The  best  preservatives  to  use  are  corrosive 
sublimate,  formalin,  or  bicromate  of  potash.  All  of  these  are 
poisonous  and  must  be  carefully  handled.  The  bicromate  of 
potash  and  corrosive  sublimate  may  be  purchased  in  tablet  form, 
each  tablet  containing  enough  preservative  to  keep  a  pint  of  milk 
sweet  from  one  to  two  weeks. 

1.  What  is  the  degree  of  inaccuracy  if  the  milk  is  weighed  three 
days  per  month  instead  of  every  day?     W-FM  :  219. 


58 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


(2)  Weigh  and  test  at  least  once  a  month.  —  If  semiofficial 
records  are  to  be  made,  or  if  the  dairyman  has  the  time  necessary 
to  weigh  his  milk  every  day  and  keep  a  composite  sample  for 
testing  every  week  or  every  two  weeks,  this  is  the  most  accurate 
way  of  keeping  the  records;  but  if  the  dairyman  feels  that  he 


Fig.  14.  —  World's  ohampion  Ayrshire  cow,  Garclaugh  May  Mischief,  27944. 
25,328  lbs.  milk,  1053  lbs.  butter. 


cannot  spend  so  much  time  as  this,  fairly  accurate  records  may 
be  obtained  by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  one  day  out  of 
each  month.  This  is  the  method  by  which  the  Cow  Testing 
Associations  are  conducted.  Many  dairymen  weigh  their  milk 
every  day,  but  sample  and  test  only  once  a  month. 

The  daily  weighing  is  especially  valuable,  because  it  gives  a 
check  on  the  efficiency  of  the  milker  and  on  the  condition  of  the 
cow.  Often  the  careless  or  unobservant  milker  will  not  notice 
that  a  cow's  production  has  fallen  off  several  pounds  unless  his 


KEEPING   DAIRY  HERD   RECORDS  59 

attention  is  called  to  it  by  the  actual  weights.  Dairymen,  who 
have  formed  the  habit  of  weighing  their  milk  daily,  assert  that 
this  one  practice  saves  them  many  dollars  every  year  and  would 
make  the  work  well  worth  while  even  if  they  did  not  summarize 
their  yearly  records. 


VI 

I^B 

■■ 

H 

m 

pTiinii|.,.jr.OTn™m«:,, . 

..-Ji-1:^S^^^H^HHH^"| 

Fig.  15.  —  P>l()omer's  Queen,  39119.     World's  Champion  four-year-old  Ayr- 
shire.    21,820  lbs.  milk,  856  lbs.  fat. 

1.  What  is  the  average  amount  of  time  required  to  weigh  the  milk 
daily  from  each  cow?     W-FM  :  218. 

(3)  Keep  a  record  of  the  feed  consumed.  —  A  record  of  the 
feed  consumed  by  each  cow  should  be  made  in  order  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  cow  makes  a  profit.  Individual  cows  in  the 
herd  are  generally  fed  equal  amounts  of  hay  and  ensilage.  In 
order  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  daily  ration,  the  basket  or 
receptacle  in  which  the  ensilage  is  fed  should  be  weighed  full  of 
ensilage  several  times  and  its  average  weight  found,  or  if  the 


60 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


cows  are  all  fed  ensilage  from  one  large  cart,  the  weight  of  the 
entire  feeding  may  be  found  and  divided  by  the  number  of  cows 
to  which  it  is  fed.  This  need  be  done  only  once  a  month  and 
whenever  a  change  is  made  in  the  ration. 

Also,  the  total  amount  of  hay  fed  to  the  herd  may  be  tied  up 


Fig.   1G.  —  Johanna  Bonheur  Cliampion  2nd.     Purebred  Holstein  Fi-iesian 

Bull. 


with  ropes  and  weighed.  This  should  be  done  several  times  in 
order  to  get  a  fair  average.  This  amount  then  divided  by  the 
number  of  cows  to  which  it  is  fed  in  equal  quantities  will  give  the 
amount  which  should  be  charged  against  each  cow.  As  in  the  case 
of  the  ensilage,  it  will  be  necessary  to  do  this  only  once  a  month 
and  whenever  there  is  a  change  in  the  amount  fed.  By  using 
these  determined  averages  the  dairyman  may  estimate  rather 
closely  the  total  amount  of  hay  and  ensilage  to  be  charged  against 
the  individual  cows  for  the  season. 


KEEPING  DAIRY  HERD  RECORDS  61 

Grain  is  usually  fed  to  the  cows  by  the  measure.  In  order  to 
know  just  how  many  pounds  are  fed  to  each  cow  daily,  the  business 
dairyman  should  carefully  determine  the  weight  of  the  measure 
full  of  feed  whenever  he  changes  his  ration.  This  is  necessary  for 
economical  feeding  as  well  as  for  record  keeping.  A  record  may 
then  be  made  of  the  amount  of  grain  fed  to  each  cow  per  day. 


Fig.  17.  —  Duchess  Skylark  Ormsby.      A  Recent  World's  Record  Holstein 
Friesian  Cow. 

This  record  will  also  need  to  be  made  only  once  a  month  and 
when  the  ration  is  changed. 

In  charging  feed  against  the  cows,  the  price  should  always  be 
the  value  of  that  feed  at  the  barn,  whether  it  is  hay,  grain,  or 
ensilage.  Home  produced  feed  should  not  be  charged  at  the  cost 
of  production,  as  the  farmer  has  the  option  of  either  selling  or 
feeding  the  feed  after  it  has  been  produced.  True  cost  account 
records  must  indicate  whether  or  not  the  cow  pays  for  this  feed 


62  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

at  a  prior  which  makes  it  just  as  profitable  to  sell  it  to  her  as  it 
would  be  to  sell  it  on  the  market. 

3.  —  Summarize  the  Records  at  the  End  of  the  Year 

There  is  little  use  in  keeping  complete  records  unless  they  are 
summarized,  analyzed,  and  studied  so  that  the  farmer  can  make 
use  of  them.  As  a  result  of  daily  records,  the  farmer  will  usually 
decide  to  eliminate  some  of  the  cows  from  his  herd.  He  will  also 
decide  from  which  cows  heifer  calves  should  be  raised.  He  may 
make  rather  radical  changes  in  his  business  because  of  the  results 
of  this  record  keeping.  Although  records  that  are  kept  for  only 
one  day  out  of  each  month  are  somewhat  less  accurate  than  are 
daily  records,  yet  the  one  day  per-  month  plan  is  much  easier  to 
summarize. 

Draw  up  a  form  of  summary  that  will  show  you  the  following 
facts  for  each  cow  by  months  and  totals  for  the  year: 

1.  Number  of  days  in  milk 

2.  Amount  of  milk  produced 

3.  Amount  of  butter  fat  produced 

4.  Value  of  product 

o.  Amount  of  grain  consumed 

6.  Amount  of  hay  consumed 

7.  Amount  of  silage  or  other  succulent  feed 

8.  Amount  of  other  feed 

9.  Value  of  grain 

10.  Value  of  hay 

11.  Value  of  silage  or  other  .succulent  feed 

12.  Value  of  other  feed 

13.  Value  of  pasture 

14.  Total  feed  cost 
1.5.  Amount  of  labor 

16.  Value  of  labor 

17.  Total  feed  and  labor  cost 

18.  Estimated  total  cost  of  keeping  cow  (Add  25  per  cent  to  No.  17) 

19.  Cost  per  unit  of  milk  or  product 

When  this  record  is  filled  out,  a  glance  at  the  result  will  tell  at 
any  time  exactly  how  much  milk  each  cow  has  produced  during 
the  year,  the  amount  of  butter  fat  produced,  the  variation  in  pro- 
duction by  months  throughout  the  year,  and  the  amounts  and  cost 
of  the  feed  consumed.     In  drawing  conclusions  from  these  figures 


KEEPING   DAIRY   HERD   RECORDS  63 

the  dairyman  must  also  bear  in  mind  other  conditions,  which  are 
not  indicated  by  the  figures.  For  instance,  a  cow  may  have  had 
some  trouble  during  the  year  which  kept  down  her  yearly  produc- 
tion. Nevertheless,  the  records  may  be  such  that  the  dairyman 
can  estimate  that  when  the  cow  recovers  from  her  trouble  she  will 
be  a  profitable  producer.  Allowances  must  also  be  made  for  a 
cow  that  has  not  reached  maturity. 

According  to  a  bulletin  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  the 
production  of  cows  at  various  ages  should  be  increased  by  the 
percentages  indicated  below  in  order  to  make  them  comparable 
with  the  productions  of  mature  cows. 

Age  of  cow  at  beginning  of  test  Percentage  to  increase  record  for 

comparison  with  mature  cows 

23^2  years 30  per  cent 

23-^  to  3      years 24  per  cent 

3  to  3}4  years 18  per  cent 

334  to  4      years 15  per  cent 

4  to  434  years 8  per  cent 

414  to  5      years 5  per  cent 

Fig.  18. — Age  and  percentage  of  increased  production. 

4.  —  Determine  How  Much  Milk  or  Butter  Fat  a  Cow  Should 
Produce  in  a  Year 

In  the  more  intensive  dairy  regions  of  the  Eastern  States  it  is 
generally  considered  that  a  mature  cow  should  give  7000  pounds 
of  milk  per  year  in  order  to  be  profitable,  or  if  butter  or  cream  is 
sold  a  mature  cow  should  produce  the  equivalent  of  250  pounds  of 
butter  per  year.  This  is  subject,  however,  to  a  considerable  vari- 
ation for  different  conditions.  Summer  dairies  that  are  producing 
milk  almost  entirely  on  pasture  and  consume  little  grain  may 
return  a  profit  with  a  smaller  amount  of  milk  or  butter  fat.  Cows 
that  are  fed  very  extensively  upon  grain  or  kept  upon  expensive 
soiling  crops  instead  of  upon  cheap  pasture  may  show  a  loss  at 
7000  pounds  of  milk. 

Where  there  is  a  special  market  for  extra  rich  milk,  Jersey  cows, 
that  produce  milk  of  high  test  that  will  bring  a  greater  price  per 


64  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

quart,  may  show  profit  when  producing  considerably  less  than 
7000  pounds  per  year.  In  this  case,  however,  they  will  usually 
be  producing  the  equivalent  of  250  pounds  of  butter  per  year. 
In  making  the  final  decision  as  to  whether  or  not  your  cow  is 
profitable  you  must  take  into  consideration  the  price  that  you 
receive  for  j'^our  milk  and  the  cost  of  the  feed  and  labor  that  you 
expend  upon  her.  These  things  may  be  determined  easily  if  com- 
plete herd  records  are  kept. 

5.  —  Make  Babcock  Tests  for  Butter  Fat  in  Milk* 

Materials.  —  A  hand-power  centrifugal  tester,  at  least  two  milk 
test  bottles,  one  pipette  to  measure  the  milk,  one  acid  measure, 
about  one  pint  of  sulphuric  acid  with  specific  gravity  between  1 .82 
and  1.85,  a  few  ounces  of  milk,  and  some  hot  water  must  be  pro- 
vided. The  necessary  apparatus  and  acid  can  be  ordered  through 
a  hardware  dealer.     Sulphuric  acid  is  sold  also  at  drug  stores. 

Samj)ling  the  Milk. — The  milk  to  be  tested  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed  just  before  the  sample  is  taken,  to  make  sure  that  the  fat  or 
cream  is  evenly  distributed.  This  can  be  best  done  by  gently 
pouring  it  back  and  forth  between  the  two  vessels  several  times. 
The  milk  should  be  neither  very  cold  nor  very  hot,  but  at  a  tem- 
perature between  60°  and  70°  Fahrenheit. 

Place  the  small  end  of  the  pipette  at  the  center  of  the  milk  and 
suck  the  milk  up  above  the  17.6  cubic  centimeter  mark.f  Quickly 
put  the  index  finger  over  the  upper  end  of  the  pipette,  and  by 
releasing  the  pressure  allow  the  milk  to  run  out  until  its  upper 
surface  is  even  with  17.6  cc.  mark  when  the  pipette  is  held  straight 
up  and  down. 

Place  the  point  of  the  pipette  a  short  distance  into  the  test 
bottle  neck,  holding  it  against  the  glass,  with  both  pipette  and 
bottle  held  at  an  angle.  Remove  the  finger  to  allow  the  milk  to 
flow  into  the  bottle.  Be  sure  to  get  every  drop  of  the  milk,  taking 
care  to  drain  the  pipette  and  to  blow  the  last  drop  into  the  bottle. 

*Froiu  Cornell  Rural  School  Leaflet. 

t  Cul)ic  centimeter  is  abbreviated  cc.  and  is  equivalent  to  about  twenty 
drops. 


k]<;eping  dairy  herd  records  65 

A  little  practice  should  make  any  one  proficient  with  the  pipette. 
It  is  best  always  to  make  this  test  in  duphcate;  hence,  two  bottles 
are  needed  for  each  lot  of  milk. 

Using  the  Acid.  —  The  acid  is  very  strong  and  must  be  handled 
with  great  care.  If  any  gets  on  the  hands,  face,  or  clothing,  it 
should  be  washed  off  quickly  and  cold  water  should  always  be 
ready  for  this  purpose.  Do  not  leave  the  acid  where  young  chil- 
dren can  get  it. 

After  all  the  samples  of  milk  to  be  tested  have  been  measured, 
the  acid  should  be  added.  Fill  the  acid  measure  to  the  17.5  cc. 
mark  with  acid  that  is  neither  very  cold  nor  very  hot,  but  about 
the  same  temperature  as  the  milk.  Pour  this  into  the  bottle  with 
the  milk,  holding  the  bottle  in  a  slanting  position.  The  acid  will 
then  carry  down  any  milk  left  in  the  neck  and  follow  the  glass 
surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  and  form  a  layer  under  the  milk. 

Hold  the  bottle  by  the  neck  and  give  it  a  circular  motion  for  a 
few  minutes,  mixing  the  milk  and  acid  until  no  milk  or  clear  acid 
is  visible.  By  this  time,  the  contents  will  be  dark  colored  and  hot. 
This  change  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  acid  has  dissolved  all  the 
solid  constituents  of  the  milk  except  the  fat,  which  it  does  not 
affect. 

Whirling  the  Bottles. — The  bottles  are  whirled  to  separate  the 
fat  so  that  it  can  be  measured.  They  should  be  hot  when  whirled. 
If  necessary,  they  may  be  heated  by  standing  in  hot  water  before 
being  put  into  the  machine.  A  steam  machine  is  easily  kept  hot 
when  in  use.  Other  kinds  should  have  boiling  hot  water  placed 
in  them. 

Place  the  bottles  in  the  machine  so  that  each  one  will  have 
another  directly  opposite,  to  keep  the  machine  in  balance.  Whirl 
the  bottles  five  minutes  at  the  proper  speed  for  the  machine  in 
use.  Then  stop  it,  and,  with  the  pipette  or  by  some  other  con- 
venient means,  add  hot  water  to  each  bottle  until  the  contents 
come  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  neck.  Whirl  two  minutes.  Add 
hot  water  enough  to  bring  the  top  of  the  fat  nearly  to  the  top  of 
the  graduations  on  the  neck  of  the  bottles.  Whirl  one  minute. 
The  fat  should  then  form  a  clear  column  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 


66  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

Reading  the  Percentage.  —  Keep  the  fat  warm  so  that  it  will 
be  in  a  fluid  condition.  Hold  the  bottle  by  the  upper  end  of  the 
neck  in  a  perpendicular  position,  on  the  level  with  the  eye.  Read 
the  mark  or  graduations  at  the  extreme  top  and  bottom  of  the 
fat  column.  The  difference  between  these  is  the  percentage  of 
fat  in  the  milk.  Most  test  bottles  are  made  to  read  as  high  as 
10  per  cent.  Each  percentage  has  its  number  marked  on  the 
glass  and  there  are  five  small  spaces,  each  representing  .2  per 
cent  between  these  principal  marks.  Thus,  if  the  top  of  the  fat 
column  is  even  with  the  third  short  mark  above  the  7  mark,  the 
top  reading  would  be  7.6;  and  if  the  bottom  is  halfway  between 
the  first  and  second  short  marks  above  the  3  mark,  the  bottom 
reading  would  be  3.3;  the  difference  is  4.3,  which  is  the  percentage 
of  fat  or  number  of  pounds  of  fat  in  100  pounds  of  the  milk  tested. 

The  following  observations  should  be  noted: 

If  the  fat  column  is  clouded  with  white  specks,  probably  the 
acid  was  not  strong  enough,  or  not  enough  was  used,  or  the  heat 
was  not  high  enough,  or  mixing  was  insufficient. 

If  the  fat  column  is  clouded  with  dark  specks,  probably  the  acid 
was  too  strong,  or  there  was  too  much,  or  the  heat  was  too  great. 

Always  keep  the  acid  bottle  closed  when  not  in  use  or  the  acid 
will  lose  strength.    Remember  that  it  is  a  poison  and  corrosive. 

(1)   Points  to  be  noted  especially  in  making  the   Babcock   test. 

1 .  Be  sure  to  mix  the  sample  of  milk  thoroughly  before  drawing 
it  out  with  the  pipette. 

2.  When  measuring  a  sample  of  milk  with  the  pipette,  keep 
the  index  finger  dry. 

3.  When  measuring  a  sample  of  milk,  keep  the  mark  on  the 
pipette  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  The  same  precaution  should  be 
observed  when  reading  the  per  cent  of  fat  after  the  test  is  com- 
pleted. 

4.  Do  not  try  to  measure  a  sample  of  milk  by  trying  to  draw 
the  milk  just  to  the  mark  on  the  pipette.  Draw  the  milk  above 
the  mark,  as  directed. 

5.  When  adding  milk  or  acid  to  the  test  bottle,  slant  the  bottle. 


KEEPING   DAIRY   HERD   RECORDS  67 

The  liquid  will  then  run  down  the  lower  inside  of  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  and  will  not  be  forced  out  by  outcoming  air. 

6.  Do  not  h,old  the  bottle  so  that  its  mouth  points  toward  your- 
self or  any  one  else.  The  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  milk  pro- 
duces great  heat.  This  heat  often  causes  the  contents  of  the  bottle 
to  spurt  out  violently. 

7.  After  adding  the  acid  to  the  milk,  shake  the  bottle  thor- 
oughly until  the  contents  become  quite  dark  in  color. 

8.  After  using  the  pipette,  wash  it  thoroughly,  preferably  in 
hot  water.  This  will  tend  to  prevent  the  transmission  of  disease 
germs  from  the  mouth  of  one  person  to  another,  should  any  such 
germs  be  present. 

9.  The  tester  should  be  firmly  fastened  to  a  solid  bench  or  table. 

10.  The  person  operating  the  machine  should  give  his  whole 
attention  to  it  and  not  allow  his  fingers  or  clothing  to  get  in  the 
path  of  the  bottle  cups. 

11.  Remove  all  objects  from  the  vicinity  of  the  tester.  This 
will  prevent  their  being  hit  by  the  bottle  cups  when  the  machine 
is  in  motion. 

12.  If  acid  is  spilled  upon  anything,  pour  on  plenty  of  cold 
water,  and  then  add  some  alkali,  such  as  lime  or  baking  soda,  to 
neutralize  the  acid. 

13.  Do  not  leave  the  acid  bottle  uncorked. 

14.  Keep  all  glassware  perfectly  clean. 

15.  After  washing  the  glassware,  rinse  it  thoroughly  in  clean 
water  to  remove  soap  powder.  The  soap  powder  and  the  acid 
produce  a  violent  chemical  reaction. 

1.  Draw  up  a  good  milk  sheet  for  keeping  the  daily  weighings  of 

milk  for  a  month  from  a  herd  of  twelve  cows.     Start  using 
this  at  once  with  the  project  herd. 

2.  Visit  the  nearest  creamery  or  milk  handhng  plant  and  watch 

the  tester  conduct  the  Babcock  test  with  a  large  number  of 
samples. 

3.  Use  the  Babcock  Tester  at  the  school  until  the  pupil  becomes 

proficient  and  does  accurate  work. 


68  DAIRY  FARIMIXO   PROJECTS 

4.  Visit  a  near-by  herd  at  milking  time.     Let  each  student  sample 

the  lot  of  milk  and  bring  his  sample  back  to  the  school  to 
test.  Arrange  the  samples  so  that  two  samples  are  taken 
of  each  cow's  milk  for  testing  by  two  different  students. 
After  testing  the  samples  at  the  school  the  students  should 
check  with  each  other  to  determine  their  degree  of  accuracy. 

5.  Using  a  loose  leaf  note  book  and  plain  paper,  draw  up  a  sum- 

mary form  for  the  yearly  record  by  months  of  each  cow  in 
the  home  herd  or  project  herd.     Summarize. 

6.  Which  is  the  most  profitable  cow  in  your  dairy  herd?     Give  all 

figures. 

7.   When  arid  by  whom  was  the  Babcock  test  invented?    Wi :  S9. 


CHAPTER  V 
FEEDING  AND  WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW 

1.  Feed  a  balanced  ration 

2.  Consider  the  following  factors  in  making  up  a  ration 

(1)  Amount  and  bulk  of  dry  matter 

(2)  Comparative  cost  of  digestible  nutrients  in  different 
grains 

(3)  Nutritive  ratio 

(4)  Palatability 

(5)  Variety  of  feeds 

(6)  ]\Ianurial  values 

3.  Feeding  and  watering  the  dairy  cow  in  winter 

4.  Feeding  the  dairy  cow  in  summer 

5.  Caring  for  pastures 

6.  Using  soiling  crops  when  pasture  is  not  available 

7.  Feeding  the  dry  cow 

8.  How  the  animal's  body  uses  food 

9.  Food  used  to  produce  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk 

The  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  in  summer  presents  few  difficulties 
where  pasture  is  available.  Pasture  alone  is  an  ideal  ration.  The 
feeding  of  cattle  in  winter,  however,  is  a  more  difficult  problem. 

The  basis  of  the  dairy  cow's  ration  in  winter  is  the  roughage 
and  succulent  feeds  usually  produced  upon  the  farm.  To  these 
should  be  added  grain  or  concentrated  feeds  which  may  be  grown 
on  the  farm  or  may  be  purchased. 

Feed  the  cow  as  much  dry  roughage,  such  as  clover  hay,  alfalfa 
hay,  mixed  hay,  straw,  or  corn  stalks,,  as  she  will  clean  up  at 
each  feeding.  In  addition,  she  should  be  given  if  possible  a  liberal 
feeding,  i.e.  from  thirty  to  forty  pounds  per  day,  of  some  succulent 

69 


70  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

food,  such  as  roots  or  silage.  The  remainder  of  the  ration  should 
consist  of  grain  or  concentrates  and  the  amount  fed  should  vary 
with  the  milk  production.  A  ratio  of  orie-pound  of  grain  to  three 
or  four  pounds  of  milk  is  generally  advised. 

1.  How  much  hay,  ensilage,  and  grain  should  be  fed  to  a  dairy 
cow  producing  thirty  pounds  of  milk  daily? 
W-PD  :  239.     E  :  267. 


1.  —  Feed  a  Balanced  Ration 

As  we  have  learned  in  our  biology  study,  the  food  of  all  animals 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes;  namely,  energj^-giving  compounds 
and  tissue-building  compounds.  We  commonly  speak  of  the  tis- 
sue-building compounds  as  proteins.  The  proteins  are  present  in 
large  cjuantities  in  such  foods  as  peas,  beans,  clover,  alfalfa,  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  gluten.  They  are  present  in  smaller  quantities  in 
all  of  the  grains. 

Energy-giving  compounds  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  carbo- 
hydrates, or  starchy  foods,  and  fats.  One  pound  of  digestible  fat 
produces  two  and  one-quarter  times  as  much  energy  as  one  pound 
of  digestible  carliohydrates.  Some  foods  which  are  especially  rich 
in  energy-producing  compounds,  i.e.  carbohydrates  or  fats  or  both, 
are  corn,  oats,  oil  meal,  timothy  hay,  and  corn  silage.  All  of  these 
foods  also  contain  some  protein.  Oil  meal  contains  a  great  deal 
of  protein  and  is  classed  as  a  high  protein  feed. 

Investigators  at  experiment  stations  and  practical  dairymen 
have  found  that  dairy  cows  give  the  greatest  amount  of  milk 
when  their  ration  is  so  made  up  that  there  is  a  certain  relation 
between  the  protein  and  the  carbohydrates  and  fat.  This  relation 
is  called  the  nutritive  ratio.  It  is  generally  considered  that  this 
ratio  should  be  about  one  part  of  protein  to  six  parts  of  carbo- 
hydrates plus  fats  reduced  to  carbohydrate  value.  A  ration  having 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  less  than  one  to  six  is  spoken  of  as  having  a 
narrow  nutritive  ratio,  while  if  the  ratio  is  more  than  one  to  six 
it  is  said  to  be  a  wide  nutiitive  ratio. 


FEEDING  AND   WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW 


71 


How  is  each  of  the  following  substances  used  in  the  animal's 
body:   protein,  carbohydrates,  fat? 
NY-117:  56-57.     H  :  56-58. 

Fill  in  after  each  one  of  the  following  feeds  its  nutritive  ratio: 
NY-117:  77-100. 


corn  siloge   .  .  . 
timothy  hay  .  . 
carrots 
potatoes    

turnips  .  .  .  . 
skimmed  milk . 
millet  hay.  .  .  . 


alfalfa  hay 
red  clover  hay 
wheat  bran   .  . 
corn  meal  . . . 

oats     

gluten  feed 


The  following  method  of  balancing  a  ration  is  adapted  from  that 
published  by  Professor  H.  H.  Wing  of  Cornell  University. 


Low  protein  group 

Medium  protein  group 

High  protein  group 

Total  protein 
12  per  cent  or  less 

Total  protein 
12  per  cent  to  25  per  cent 

Total  protein 
25  per  cent  or  more 

Corn 10.3 

Oats 11.4 

Wheat  bran 15.4 

Mixed  wheat  feed 16.3 

Standard  wheat  middlings.  16. 9 
Flour  wheat  middlings..  .  .19.2 

Malt  sprouts 26.3 

Linseed  oil  meal 33.9 

Rye 11.3 

Gluten  feed".  .  .  .  .' 25 . 0 

Barley 12.0 

Buckwheat 10.8 

Hominy  chop 10.5 

Dried  beet  pulp 8.1 

Corn  and  cob  meal...  .8.-5 

Cotton  seed  feed 20 . 0 

Buckwheat     feed     (shuck 

in) 18.3 

Pea  meal 20.2 

Cull  beans 21.6 

Brewers'  dried  grains 25.0 

Distillers'      dried      grains 

(corn) 31.2 

Buckwheat  middlings  (free 

from  shuck) 26.7 

Fig.  19.- 


Low,"  "medium,"  and  "high"  protein  feeds.     "Heavy"  feeds  are 
underlined;  "light"  feeds  are  not  underlined. 


The  ordinary  grain  feeds  may  be  divided  into  three  groups:  low 
protein  (less  than  12  per  cent);  medium  protein  (12  to  25  per 
cent);  high  protein  (over  25  per  cent).  Mixed  hay,  corn  silage, 
and  cornstalks  or  fodder  are  very  similar  in  composition  so  far  as 
the  balance  between  protein  and  carbohydrates  is  concerned. 

For  the  sake  of  variety  it  is  desirable  to  use  at  least  three  feeds. 
If  one  low  protein,  one  medium  protein,  and  two  high  protein 
foods  be  mixed  together  in  equal  parts  by  weight,  the  mixture 
will  make  a  well-balanced  ration  to  be  used  with  roughage  which 


72  DAIRY  FARMING   TROJECTS 

contains  no  leguminous  plants.  If  leguminous  roughages  are  used, 
the  grain  mixture  may  be  made  up  of  one  low  protein,  one  medium 
protein,  and  one  high  protein  food  mixed  in  equal  parts  by  weight. 
An  ideal  grain  ration  should  weigh  about  one  pound  to  the  quart. 
To  secure  this,  the  mixture  should  contain  at  least  one  "light" 
food. 

A  dairy  cow  in  full  milk  should  have  all  the  hay  and  silage  that 
she  will  eat  and  if  she  is  giving  4  per  cent  milk  or  richer,  she  should 
have  one  pound  of  grain  for  each  3  or  3}/^  pounds  of  milk  that  she 
produces.  A  cow  giving  milk  with  less  than  4  per  cent  of  fat 
should  have  one  pound  of  grain  for  each  3}/2  or  4  pounds  of  milk 
that  she  produces. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  net  energy  values  and  who  are  the  leading 

experimenters  in  determining  these?     HM  :  92. 

2.  Are  the  net  energy  values  obtained  by  these  experimenters 

applicable  in  work  with  dairy  cows?     HM  :  95. 

3.  Hov:  is  the  Scandinavian  feed  unit  systein  used  in  economical  feeding 

of  dairy  cattle?    HM  :  95-96. 

4.  What  is  a  respiratio7i  calorimeter  and  how  does  it  irork?     HM  :  40. 

2.  —  Consider  the  Following  Factors  in  Making  Up  a  Ration 

In  making  up  an  ideal  ration  several  factors  must  enter  into 
consideration.  The  more  important  ones  are  as  follows:  Amount 
of  dry  matter,  cost  of  the  ration,  nutritive  ratio,  palatabiUty  of 
the  ration,  variety,  constipating  and  laxative  quaUties,  and  ma- 
nurial  values. 

(1)  Amount  and  bulk  of  dry  matter.  —  The  cow  has  a  very 
long  digestive  tract  and  great  digestive  capacity.  Her  organs  of 
digestion  function  in  such  a  way  that  she  is  able  to  obtain  the 
greatest  amount  of  nutriment  from  her  feed,  if  the  food  itself  is 
very  bulky,  loose,  and  easily  permeated  by  the  digestive  juices. 
For  this  reason,  the  cow's  ration  must  contain  a  large  amount  of 
dry  matter.  About  two  thirds  of  this  dry  matter  should  be  in 
the  form  of  dry  roughage,  such  as  hay,  straw,  or  cornstalks,  and 


FEEDING  AND  WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW  73 

of  succulent  materials,  such  as  silage  or  roots.  About  one  third 
of  the  dry  matter  should  be  in  the  form  of  grain.  A  cow  weighing 
1000  pounds  and  producing  30  pounds  of  milk  per  day  is  generally 
considered  to  require  about  25  pounds  of  total  dry  matter.  If 
too  much  grain  and  too  little  roughage  or  succulent  materials  are 
used  in  the  ration,  the  food  in  the  stomach  will  be  too  compact 
and  not  sufficiently  loose  or  bulky  to  allow  the  digestive  juices  to 
do  their  best  work.  In  order  to  give  the  best  results  the  entire 
ration  should  be  bulky  and  the  grain  ration  by  itself  should  possess 
considerable  bulk. 

(2)   Comparative  cost  of  digestible  nutrients  in  different  grains. 

—  One  of  the  most  important  factors  to  be  considered  by  the 
farmer  in  making  up  his  ration  is  the  cost.  Economical  feeding 
means  profitable  production ;  uneconomical  feeding  means  unprof- 
itable production,  even  though  the  quantity  of  production  may 
be  large. 

In  selecting  the  concentrates  or  grains  to  be  used,  the  item 
of  cost  should  be  of  prime  consideration.  Feeds  should  be  selected 
on  the  basis  of  their  cost  per  pound  of  digestible  nutrients  rather 
than  of  their  cost  per  ton.  The  following  table  gives  the  number 
of  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  in  a  ton  of  each  of  the  feeds 
named : 


Corn 1676  Flour  middlings 1564 

Oats 1391  Malt  sprouts 1412 

Hominy 1692  Oil  meal 1554 

Beet  pulp 1432  Cottonseed  meal 1564 

Corn  and  cob  meal 1418  Gluten  feed 1614 

Wheat  bran 1218  Brewers'  grain 1314 

Wheat  feed 1340  Distillers'  dried  grains 1778 

Standard  middlings 1386  Buckwheat  middlings 1532 

Fig.  20. — Pounds  per  ton  of  digestible  nutrients. 

By  dividing  the  market  price  of  each  feed  by  the  number  of 
pounds  of  total  digestible  nutrients  in  a  ton  of  that  feed  we  may 
find  the  cost  per  pound  of  digestil^le  nutrients.     (Jrdinarily,  the 


74  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

fanner  has  enough  variety  of  feeds  from  which  to  select  so  that 
he  may  exercise  some  choice  as  to  cost  and  be  able  to  cheapen 
his  ration  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  The  calculation  neces- 
sary is  very  simple  and  should  be  performed. 

(3)  Nutritive  ratio.  —  The  nutritive  ratio  for  dairy  cows  should 
seldom  be  narrower  than  1  to  4.5  and  seldom  wider  than  1  to  7. 
For  very  young  animals  the  nutritive  ratio  may  be  somewhat 
below  1  to  4.5. 

1.  How  wide  a  nutritive  ratio  may  be  used  and  still  obtain  maxi- 
mum production  from  dairy  cows?     HM  :  99. 

(4)  Palatability.  —  The  ration  must  be  made  up  of  feeds  which 
are  pleasant  to  the  cow's  taste,  i.e.  it  must  possess  palatability. 
Certain  feeds  such  as  brewers'  grains,  buckwheat  hulls,  cottonseed 
meal,  gluten  feed,  overripe  hay,  or  roughage  that  has  been  poorly 
cured  are  generally  considered  to  be  unpalatable.    Such  feeds  as 


Fig.  21.  — This  river  bottom  meadow  produces  the,  hay  for  the  next  winter's 
feeding. 


FEEDING  AND   WATERING   THE   DAIRY   COW  75 

silage,  all  leguminous  hays,  roots,  oats,  corn,  bran,  linseed  meal, 
and  beet  pulp  are  known  as  palatable  feeds.  Many  of  the  un- 
palatable feeds  are  exceptionally  good  from  the  standpoint  of 
milk  production.  When  feeding  these,  they  must  be  mixed  with 
enough  of  the  palatable  feeds  to  induce  the  cow  to  eat  large 
quantities. 

(5)  Variety  of  feeds.  —  If  a  cow  is  fed  on  a  ration  made  up 
of  only  one  or  two  constituents  or  constituents  which  all  come 
from  the  same  plant,  the  appetite  is  generally  dulled,  and  the 
animal  will  not  eat  a  large  quantity  of  food.  Experiments  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  have  proved  that  in  some  cases  it  is 
detrimental  both  to  the  cow  and  to  her  offspring  to  feed  her  en- 
tirely on  foods  from  one  source.  This  was  particularly  true  when 
cows  were  fed  entirely  on  products  of  the  wheat  plant,  i.e.  wln-at 
gram,  wheat  bran,  and  wheat  straw.  A  ration  for  the  dairy  cow 
should  contain  at  least  three  different  concentrates  and  two 
different  roughages.  These  feeds  should  come  from  not  less  than 
three  different  plants.  Such  a  variety  as  this  will  stimulate  the 
cow's  appetite,  induce  her  to  eat  larger  quantities,  and  result  in 
greater  milk  production. 

(6)  Manurial  values.  —  In  selecting  the  concentrates  to  be 
fed,  some  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  manurial  values. 
It  has  been  established  by  chemists  that  a  considerable  amount 
of  the  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potash  contained  in  the  food  is 
returned  by  the  animal  in  the  manure.  If  reasonable  care  is 
exercised  in  getting  the  manure  from  the  stable  to  the  fields  so 
that  the  farm  receives  a  large  share  of  the  fertilizing  value  that  is 
contained  in  the  manure,  then  considerable  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  manurial  value  of  the  various  foods.  In  actual  practice, 
however,  there  is  so  much  wastage  in  delivering  the  manure  from 
the  stable  to  the  crop,  and  the  crop  returns  from  an  extra  invest- 
ment in  manure  require  so  long  a  time  compared  with  the  milk 
returns  from  an  extra  investment  in  feed  that  most  dairymen 
do  not  give  much  emphasis  to  manurial  values.  This  point  has 
probably  been  overemphasized  by  the  experiment  station  and 
underemphasized  by  the  practical  farmer. 


76 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


FEEDING  AND  WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW  77 

According  to  Henry  and  Morrison,  the  dairy  cow  returns  in 
the  form  of  manure  89.7  per  cent,  of  all  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash.  The  value  of  this  will  depend  upon  the  market  value  of 
these  fertilizing  constituents  and  will  vary  from  year  to  year. 
Some  of  the  concentrates  from  which  is  recovered  the  greatest 
amount  of  fertilizing  constituents  are  cottonseed  meal,  linseed 
oil  meal,  malt  sprouts,  distillers'  dried  grains,  gluten,  middlings, 
bran,  and  brewers'  grain. 

1.  What  per  cent  of  the  fertility  contained  in  the  food  is  recovered 

in  the  manure  of  dairy  cows?     W  :  138. 

2.  Which  has  the  greater  value  per  ton,  Uquid  manure  or  solid 

manure?     W  :  140. 

3.  How  great  a  loss  of  fertility  may  result  when  manure  is  exposed 

to  the  weather  for  some  months?     W  :  141. 

4.  Compare  the  composition  of  cow  manure  with  that  from  horses, 

sheep,  and  swine.     HM  :  217. 

5.  How  does  the  value  of  the  manure  produced  in  a  year  by  a 

cow  weighing  1000  pounds  compare  with  the  value  of  that 
produced  in  the  same  time  by  sheep,  pigs,  or  horses  per 
1000  pounds  weight?     HM  :  218. 

6.  How  may  the  farmer  prevent  loss  of  fertiUty  in  manure? 

W  :  142.     HM  :  219.     W-FM  :  199. 

3.  —  Feeding  and  Watering  the  Dairy  Cow  in  Winter 

The  manner  in  which  the  various  feeds  are  given  to  the  cow 
and  the  order  in  which  they  are  given  during  the  day  vary  con- 
siderably among  different  dairymen.  The  best  established  practice 
seems  to  be  to  feed  the  cow  half  of  her  grain  ration  at  the  time 
of  each  milking  if  she  is  milked  twice  a  day,  or  one  third  at  the 
time  of  each  milking  if  she  is  milked  three  times  a  day. 

Some  dairymen  feed  the  grain  to  all  the  cows  before  starting 
to  milk.  Others  feed  the  grain  after  milking  and  some  dairymen 
feed  each  individual  cow  her  portion  of  graui  just  before  starting 
to  milk  her.    The  temperament  of  the  cow  probably  affects  this 


78 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


practice  somewhat.  Some  cows  seem  to  be  more  contented  and 
secrete  their  milk  more  evenly  while  eating  their  grain.  Others 
seem  to  do  better  if  the  grain  is  fed  before  or  after  milking. 

Silage  should  be  fed  after  milking  and  the  hay  is  generally 
fed  after  the  silage  has  been  eaten.  Many  dairymen  feed  their 
grain  on  top  of  the  silage.  Some  dairymen  flood  the  mangers 
with  water  and,  after  the  cows  have  drunk  all  that  they  will, 
throw  the  hay  or  silage  into  the  remainder  of  the  water.    These 


Fig.  23.  —  Corn  produces  a  large  amount  of  food  per  acre. 


foods  soak  up  some  water  and  as  a  result  the  cow  takes  more 
water  into  her  system.  There  is  some  danger  of  getting  the 
mangers  dirty  and  sour  if  the  remains  of  any  of  the  food  are 
left  long  in  a  damp  condition.  But  some  of  our  most  expert 
dairymen  use  this  method  of  watering  and  feeding  consistently 
with  wonderful  results. 

Water  the  cow  at  least  twice  each  day.  This  water  should  not 
be  too  cold  and  should  be  easily  accessible  in  some  place  which  is 
protected  from  the  cold  and  the  wind.  If  the  water  is  too  cold, 
the  cow  will  not  drink  the  quantity  that  she  requires.     If  the 


FEEDING  AND  WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW 


79 


cow  must  go  from  a  warm  stable  across  a  cold,  windy,  open  field 
and  drink  ice  water,  she  will  be  so  chilled  that  the  maximum 
amount  of  milk  will  not  be  produced.  The  best  methods  of  water- 
ing are  either  to  have  the  water  before  the  cows  constantly  in 
water  buckets  or  to  flood  the  mangers  twice  daily  if  the  mangers 
are  water-tight.  It  is  a  common  saying  among  dairymen  that 
any  method  that  induces  a  cow  to  take  into  her  system  more 
water  will  result  in  a  greater  supply  of  milk.   Whether  or  not  this 


Fig.  24.  —  The  water  that  makes  a  small  load  heavy  at  harvest  time  makes 
the  cow  give  more  milk  in  winter. 


is  true,  at  least  a  full  supply  of  milk  is  dependent  upon  a  full 
and  sufficient  supply  of  water  being  taken  into  the  system. 

Eckles  foimd  that  a  cow,  producing  13.3  pounds  of  milk  per 
day  and  consuming  18.2  pounds  of  dry  matter,  drank  40.3  pounds 
of  water;  a  cow,  producing  26.8  pounds  of  milk  and  consuming 
28.3  pounds  of  dry  matter,  drank  77.3  pounds  of  water;  and  a 
cow,  producing  100  pounds  of  milk  per  day  and  consuming  about 
35  pounds  of  dry  matter,  drank  from  216  to  307  pounds  of  water 
per  day.  Such  quantities  as  these  if  drunk  at  a  freezing  temper- 
ature would  chill  the  animal's  body  to  such  an  extent  that  the 


80  DAIRY   FARMIXO   PROJECTS 

functions  of  digestion  and  milk  secretion  would  stop  completely 
for  a  while.  It  would  recjuire  a  considerable  amount  of  the  food 
which  the  cow  had  consumed  to  warm  this  water  to  body  tem- 
perature. It  is  cheaper  to  burn  coal  to  heat  water  for  the  cow 
than  to  bum  corn  or  expensive  feeds  in  her  body  for  the  same 
purpose. 

1.  How  much  salt  should  be  supplied  to  the  dairy  cow  and  how 

should  it  be  fed?     H^^I  :  263. 

2.  In  what  order  and  how  often  should  the  cow  be  fed  hay,  grain, 

and  silage?     W-PD  :  244.     EW  :  133. 

3.  Does  the  dairy  cow  require  salt  in  her  ration? 

HM:.57.     E  :  246. 

4.  How  much  water  do  dairy  cows  require  daily? 

EW:  125. 

5.  Shoixld  water  ever  be  warmed  for  dairy  cattle  in  winter? 

E  :  244.     EW  :  126. 

6.  How  should  the  cow  be  fed  before  freshening:  (1)  if  she  is  to 

freshen  in  the  winter?     (2)  if  she  is  to  freshen  in  the  summer? 
VaP:221.     VaP:21S. 

7.  How  should  a  cow  that  has  just  calved  be  fed  until  she  is  on 

fuU  feed?     VaP:231. 

8.  What  is  the  average  production  of  butter  fat  per  cow  in  the  United 

States  and  what  are  the  two  reasons  for  this  low  average? 
VaP  :  17. 


4.  —  Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow  in  Summer 

In  summer,  the  ration  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  made  up  as 
largely  as  possible  of  pasture.  In  any  region  where  pasture  grasses 
do  well  they  are  by  far  the  cheapest  food,  unless  the  value  of  the 
land  is  exceedingly  high.  Except  under  conditions  of  poor  pasture 
or  regions  of  exceedingly  high-priced  land,  no  soiling  system  has 
been  devised  which  in  economy  approaches  pasture  feed.    While 


FEEDING  AND  WATERING  THE  DAIRY  COW  81 

a  cow  is  on  pasture,  she  cuts  and  hauls  her  own  feed.  Pasture 
grass  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  and  best  balanced  rations  for 
the  dairy  cow.    It  is  the  natural  food. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  supplement  a  pasture  ration  with 
some  grain.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  cows  that  are  exceptionally 
high  producers,  or  in  case  the  pasture  is  somewhat  poor,  or  when 
the  pasture  begins  to  dry  up  badly.  Eckles  of  the  University 
of  Missouri  suggests  the  following  quantities  of  grain  with 
abundant  pasture  for  varying  production: 

Jersey  cow  producing — 

20  pounds  of  milk  daily 3  pounds  of  grain 

25  pounds  of  milk  daily 4  pounds  of  grain 

30  pounds  of  milk  daily 6  pounds  of  grain 

35  pounds  of  milk  daily 8  pounds  of  grain 

40  pounds  of  milk  daily 10  pounds  of  grain 

Holstein-Friesian  or  Ayrshire  cow  producing — 

25  pounds  of  milk  daily 3  pounds  of  grain 

30  pounds  of  milk  daily 5  pounds  of  grain 

35  pounds  of  milk  daily 7  pounds  of  grain 

40  pounds  of  milk  daily 9  pounds  of  grain 

50  pounds  of  milk  daily 10  pounds  of  grain 

Good  pasture  is  approximately  a  balanced  ration.  The  grain 
fed  as  a  supplement  to  pasture,  then,  should  balance  in  itself 
without  the  addition  of  any  roughage,  i.e.  the  grain  ration  alone 
should  contain  approximately  one  pound  of  protein  to  six  pounds 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat. 

1.  What  are  the  summer  conditions  which  bring  about  a  maximum 
production  of  milk?     E  :  257.     HM  :  258. 

5.  —  Caring  for  Pastures 

Never  turn  cows  upon  pasture  until  the  grass  is  well  started 
in  the  spring.  This  rule  should  be  followed  invariably.  But  the 
grass  should  not  be  allowed  to  obtain  too  great  a  start  before 
the  cows  are  turned  m.  Here  is  a  time  when  you  must  use  good 
judgment.  Poor  judgment  may  result  in  an  inadequate  supply 
of  pasture  for  the  entire  season  and  harm  may  be  done  to  the 


82  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

pasture  that  it  will  take  years  to  overcome,  whereas  good  judg- 
ment will  insure  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  pasture  for  the  whole 
season  and  for  other  years.  The  young,  immature  pasture  grass 
of  early  spring  contains  a  large  amount  of  water  and  a  small 
amount  of  dry  matter.  If  a  high-producing  cow  is  turned  on  it 
at  this  time  of  the  year,  the  pasture  ration  will  be  insufficient. 
The  pasture  should  be  supplemented  for  a  few  weeks  at  least 
with  some  grain  to  insure  constant  production.  It  is  always 
better  to  start  cows  on  pasture  gradually,  allowing  them  to  pasture 
only  a  short  time  each  day  for  the  first  few  days. 

Farmers  should  more  generally  recognize  the  great  value  of  a 
good  pasture  and  should  be  more  ready  to  expend  some  money 
in  improving  or  maintaining  its  production.  A  pasture  which  is 
very  weedy,  or  in  which  the  grass  has  grown  coarse  and  long 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  may  often  be  improved  by 
mowing  about  haying  time.  If  this  is  done,  the  cutting  bar  of 
the  moving  machine  should  be  tilted  high  so  as  to  leave  as  large 
an  amount  of  plant  to  start  the  new  growth  as  possible.  A  light 
application  of  manure  and  regular  applications  of  lime  will  be 
immensely  beneficial  to  any  pasture  and  will  return  the  dairy- 
man as  much  profit  as  if  applied  to  any  other  crop  on  the  farm. 
The  best  pasture  grasses  of  northeastern  United  States  are  the 
blue  grasses  and  white  clover.  Both  of  these  are  very  much 
improved  by  the  application  of  lime. 

1.  What  is  a  formula  for  a  good  mixture  for  seeding  permanent 
pasture  on  good  land?  on  poor  land?     W  :  196. 

6.  —  Using  Soiling  Crops  When  Pasture  Is  Not  Available 

If  you  have  no  pasture  and  can  obtain  none  or  if,  because  of 
poor  adaptation  of  pasture  grasses  to  the  region  or  because  of 
high  price  of  land,  you  find  it  necessary  to  feed  your  cows  through 
the  summer  without  pasture,  you  may  do  well  to  establish  a 
regular  soiling  system.  When  doing  this,  however,  you  must 
keep  in  mind  that  the  daily  cutting  and  hauling  of  great  masses 
of  succulent  feeds,  the  hauling  away  of  manure,  the  extra  care 


FEEDING  AND   WATERING  THE   DAIRY   COW  83 

of  the  cows  in  the  barn,  and  the  cost  of  producing  soihng  crops 
all  go  to  increase  greatly  the  cost  of  milk  production. 

Probably  the  most  economical  feed  to  take  the  place  of  pasture 
or  to  supplement  pasture  during  the  dry  period  is  silage.  If  silage 
is  not  available,  then  a  succession  of  crops  may  be  raised  which 
will  mature  in  such  a  sequence  as  to  furnish  sufficient  green  food 
for  every  day  in  the  summer.  There  are  many  such  soiling  com- 
binations in  use.  This  system  must  start  with  rye  or  some  other 
early  growing  crop,  continue  with  oats  and  peas  or  other  mid- 
season  crops  planted  in  succession  so  as  to  mature  over  a  long 
period,  and  usually  end  with  corn  for  late  summer  or  early  fall 
feeding.  Grain  should  be  fed  to  supplement  such  soiling  crops 
to  some  extent  and  under  the  same  conditions  as  it  should  be  used 
to  supplement  pasture. 


1.  What  are  the  main  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  using  a 
soiling  system  and  under  what  conditions  is  it  practicable? 
HM  :  209. 


2.  What  are  some  of  the  crops  which  are  best  adapted  for  use  in 
a  soiling  system?     HM:211. 


7.  —  Feeding  the  Dry  Cow 

All  cows  should  be  dry  for  from  six  weeks  to  two  months  before 
calving.  During  this  period  the  cow  must  grow  her  unborn  calf 
and  store  up  a  certain  amount  of  food  to  be  used  when  she  again 
begins  to  give  milk.  This  means  that  the  cow  as  soon  as  she 
goes  dry  should  be  liberally  fed. 

Dairymen  can  learn  an  important  lesson  from  breeders  of  pure 
bred  Hve  stock  who  prepare  animals  for  Advanced  Registry  test- 
ing. All  such  animals  are  fed  so  liberally  that  they  are  fat  at  calv- 
ing time.  For  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  lactation  period  the 
high-producing  cow  uses  all  the  food  which  she  can  eat  and  even 
draws  upon  her  own  body  tissues  in  order  to  produce  milk. 


84  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

P'eeding  before  calving  should  be  looked  upon  as  an  investment 
which  is  sure  to  be  repaid  by  an  increased  milk  flow  during  the 
next  lactation  period.  A  good  grain  ration  for  a  dry  cow  is  made 
up  of  equal  parts  of  ground  oats,  cornmeal,  bran,  and  oil  meal. 
Feed  about  four  pounds  of  this  daily.  This  ration  should  provide 
the  proper  amount  of  nutriment  for  the  cow  and  the  fetus  and 
should  keep  the  cow  in  the  sHghtly  laxative  condition  which  is 
desirable.  If  the  cow  is  on  rich,  full  pasture,  it  will  not  ordinarily 
be  necessary  to  feed  any  grain  before  calving. 


If  a  cow  is  fat  at  calving,  what  is  the  effect  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  her  milk  and  on  the  yearly  production  of  fat? 
HM  :  254.     E  :  270. 


8.  —  How  the  Animal's  Body  Uses  Food 

The  body  of  an  animal  is  made  up  of  water  and  dry  matter  in 
about  equal  proportions.     The  water  is  used  for  four  purposes: 

(1)  It  is  a  part  of  all  bone  and  flesh. 

(2)  It  carries  food  from  the  digestive  tract  to  the  cells  which 
need  it. 

(3)  It  carries  away  the  wastes  of  the  body  through  perspiration 
and  urine. 

(4)  It  equalizes  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

The  dry  matter  of  the  animal  body  is  made  up  of  four  groups 
of  substances: 

(1)  Ash. 

(2)  Nitrogeneous  substances 

(3)  Carbohydrates. 

(4)  Fats. 


FEEDING  AND   WATERING  THE   DAIRY  COW  85 

Ash  is  the  mineral  part  of  the  body  and  corresponds  exactly  to 
the  inorganic  part  of  the  ash  of  plants.  It  is  the  part  which  would 
be  left  if  the  body  were  burned.  In  animals  the  ash  is  mostly  in 
the  bones,  but  it  is  found  to  some  extent  in  all  the  tissues.  It 
constitutes  from  2  per  cent  to  5  per  cent  of  the  live  weight. 

Nitrogenous  substances  of  the  body  are  also  known  as  protein 
or  albuminoids.  Protein  is  found  chiefly  in  the  lean  meat,  the  skin, 
and  the  body  products.  It  exists  in  the  animal  body  in  a  much 
more  nearly  pure  state  than  it  does  in  plants.  The  protein  of  the 
body  must  come  entirely  from  the  protein  of  the  food.  The  fact 
that  the  animal  body  is  so  largely  composed  of  protein  explains 
the  great  necessity  of  feeding  a  ration  which  contains  sufficient 
protein. 

Carbohydrates  exist  in  the  body  in  very  small  quantities  and 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  blood.  These  sui)stances  are  used  by  the 
body  chiefly  to  furnish  energy  to  the  muscles  and  heat. 

Fats  also  supply  energy  to  the  animal  and  furnish  heat  to  the 
body.  In  this  way,  they  have  the  same  function  that  carbohy- 
drates have  but  are  much  more  concentrated.  One  pound  of  fat 
supplies  two  and  a  quarter  times  as  much  energy  as  one  pound 
of  carbohydrates. 

The  daily  ration  of  the  animal,  then,  must  provide  water,  ash, 
nitrogenous  substances,  carbohydrates,  and  fats.  Water  by  itself 
is  taken  directly  into  the  body  of  the  animal,  and  it  is  a  part  of 
all  feeds.  The  succulent  feeds  contain  much  more  water  than  any 
others.  Ash  exists  in  all  plants  in  such  quantities  that  the  dairy- 
man does  not  need  to  worry  as  to  whether  or  not  his  cows  are 
obtaining  a  sufficient  quantity,  provided  they  are  fed  a  good  variety 
in  their  ration  and  that  plenty  of  salt  is  supplied. 

Proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  are  found  in  all  of  the  ordinary 
animal  foods.  The  dairyman  need  only  concern  himself  with  ob- 
taining such  a  ration  that  the  proportion  of  the  total  protein  to 
the  total  amount  of  carbohydrates  will  be  such  as  to  make  a  well- 
balanced  ration. 

1.  How  does  the  animal's  body  use  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  proteins? 
NY-117: 55-57.     HM:29-.31. 


86  DAIRY   FARMING   PRO.IFXTS 

9.  —  Food  Used  to  Produce  100  Pounds  of  Milk 

Probably  the  most  reliable  figures  on  the  quantity  of  food  con- 
sumed in  producing  milk  are  those  given  in  connection  with  the 
famous  formula  for  computing  the  cost  of  milk  production  worked 
out  by  Prof.  G.  F.  Warren  of  Cornell  University  and  adopted  by 
the  Dairymen's  League  as  the  basis  of  their  computations.  This 
Warren  formula  is  based  on  averages  derived  from  close  and  accu- 
rate cost  accounts  on  a  large  number  of  farms  in  New  York  State, 
combined  with  results  of  accurate  and  careful  statistical  studies 
of  the  cost  of  producing  milk  made  by  the  survey  method.  In- 
vestigational work  in  several  other  states  has  shown  similar  results 
where  the  conditions  and  the  size  of  the  cow  were  the  same. 

The  Warren  formula  indicates  that  the  factors  which  go  to  make 
up  one  hundred  pounds  of  three  per  cent  milk  are  those  shown 
in  Fig.  25. 


Grain 33 .  79  pounds 

Hay 43 .  30  pounds 

Other  dry  forage 10 .  80  pounds 

Silage 102 .  50  pounds 

Labor 3  hour.s 

Fig.  25. — Feed  and  labor  factors  per  100  pounds  of  3  per  cent  milk. 

The  above  factors  make  up  80  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  producing 
milk.  By  using  the  market  value  of  these  factors  and  adding  to 
the  total  25  per  cent  of  itself  to  cover  other  costs,  such  as  interest, 
depreciation,  use  of  buildings,  etc.,  the  cost  of  milk  may  be  esti- 
mated at  any  time. 

1.  If  a  farmer  has  timothy  hay  and  corn  silage,  suggest  three 

different  grain  mixtures  which  can  be  used  to  make  up  a 
balanced  ration. 

2.  List  all  the  standard  concentrates  for  sale  at  your  mill  or  by 

grain  dealers.     Fill  in  the  following  table  with  each  feed. 


FEEDING    AND   WATERING   THE   DAIRY   COW 


87 


Total  di- 

COSTPEH 

Percent 

High. 

Name  of 

Price 

gestible 

DIGE8TI- 

Heavy  or  ofdiges- 

MEDIUM, 

Palata- 

Laxative 

FEED 

NUTRI- 

LIGHT 

TIBLE 

OR   LOW 

BILITY 

OR    OON- 

ENTS 

TRIENT 

PROTEIN 

PROTEIN 

stipatinq 

Use  tables  from  Henry  and  Morrison's 
(^abridged) . 


Feeds  and  Feeding" 


3.  Criticize  each  one  of  the  rations  made  up  under  the  first  exercise 

as  to  each  factor  which  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  making  up  a  ration. 

4.  Bring  to  class  a  description  of  the  order  of  feeding  and  watering 

and  the  method  of  watering  on  your  home  farm  or  on  some 
farm  with  which  you  are  familiar.  Discuss  and  compare 
the  various  methods. 


6.  Obtain  from  the  local  feed  dealer  the  prices  on  all  the 
common  feeds.  Plan  the  best  and  cheapest  balanced  ration 
for  your  project  herd.  Using  market  prices,  compute  the 
cost  of  milk  in  your  locality  by  means  of  the  Warren  formula. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MILKING  AND  BEDDING  THE  COW 

1.  A  quiet  milker  gets  the  most  milk 

2.  Milking  cows  by  machine 

3.  Ailments  to  be  treated  at  the  time  of  milking 

(1)  Bloody  milk 

(2)  Leaking  teats 

(3)  Chapped  teats  and  injm-ies 

(4)  Preventing  kicking 

4.  Bedding  the  dairy  cow. 

1.  —  A  Quiet  Milker  Gets  the  Most  Milk 

During  milking  time  keep  the  dairy  stable  quiet  and  do  nothing 
that  excites  or  frightens  the  cows  in  any  way.  You  should  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  that  the  exceptional  development  of  the 
milking  characteristic  in  the  dairy  cow  has  been  accompanied  by 
the  development  of  a  highly  nervous  disposition.  Shouting  around 
the  cow  stable,  the  chasing  of  cows  by  dogs,  and  pounding  the 
cows,  all  lessen  the  amount  of  milk  and  directly  affect  your  pocket- 
book.  Anything  unusual  may  lessen  the  amount  of  milk  secreted. 
The  presence  of  strangers  in  the  barn,  a  strange  milker,  feeding 
at  an  unusual  time,  and  various  other  changes  in  the  regular 
routine  of  management  will  decrease  the  amount  of  milk  produced. 

Contrary  to  popular  opinion  there  is  very  little  milk  in  the 
cow's  udder  at  milking  time.  The  milk  is  secreted  by  the  cow 
during  the  process  of  milking.  To  secure  the  maximum  amount 
of  milk  that  the  cow  is  capable  of  secreting  at  that  time  the  stable 
must  be  quiet  and  the  cow  must  be  handled  in  such  a  way  that 
she  is  quieted  and  soothed  rather  than  excited. 


MILKING   AND   BEDDING  THE   COW  89 

In  order  to  secure  the  most  milk  the  cow  should  be  milked 
quickly,  quietly,  and  completely.  The  quick,  strong-handed 
milker  will  stimulate  the  cow  to  secrete  quickly  and  fully  a  maxi- 
mum amount  of  milk.  The  cow  should  not  be  stripped  for  a  long 
time.  Yet  you  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  last  milk,  or  the  strip- 
pings,  is  much  richer  in  butter  fat  than  the  first  milk  secreted. 
It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  get  as  much  of  the  strippings  as  can 
be  obtained  economically  without  any  ill  effects  upon  the  cow. 
No  milk  should  be  left  in  the  cow's  udder  when  the  milker  is 
through.  Milk  left  in  the  udder  at  this  time  tends  to  prevent  the 
secretion  of  milk  at  the  next  milking  and  will  ultimately  dry  up 
the  cow.  After  you  have  milked  the  cow  completely  dry,  do  not 
go  back  after  an  interval  and  extract  more  milk,  even  though 
you  find  that  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  small  additional  quantity. 
This  practice  is  bad  for  the  cow.  It  tends  to  dry  up  the  cow 
and  ultimately  results  in  loss  of  milk.  It  is  not  a  good  practice 
to  strip  a  cow  slowly  and  for  a  long  time  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,  as  is  so  commonly  done  by  some  milkers  when  their 
hands  begin  to  get  tired.  The  most  efficient  milker  is  a  inan  or 
woman  with  strong  hands,  who  milks  quickly,  quietly,  and  com- 
pletely with  httle  stripping. 

Whenever  possible  the  same  person  should  milk  the  cow  at 
every  milking  period.  A  change  of  milkers  will  generally  mean 
a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  milk  secreted.  Where  it  is  impossible 
for  each  dairyman  to  have  a  certain  string  of  cows  which  he 
milks  and  no  one  else  handles,  if  is  a  common  practice  for  the 
men  in  the  barn  to  milk  the  cows  in  succession  just  as  they  happen 
to  come  to  them.  If  there  is  such  a  constant  change  in  the  work- 
ing force  that  regularity  is  not  possible,  this  succession  may  be 
practicable  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  accustom  the  cow  to  being 
milked  by  any  good  milker. 

Some  dairymen,  as  stated  in  Chapter  V,  feed  grain  before 
milking,  some  after  milking,  and  some  during  milking.  Which- 
ever plan  is  adopted,  it  should  be  regularly  followed.  After  a 
cow  has  become  accustomed  to  eating  grain  while  being  milked, 


90  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

she  will  often  hold  up  her  milk  unless  she  is  fed  at  milking  time. 
Regularity  of  procedure  in  feeding  will  result  in  more  milk. 

Always  milk  the  cows  at  regular  intervals.  So  far  as  possible 
the  intervals  between  milkings  should  be  equal.  If  the  herd  is 
milked  twice  a  day,  this  will  give  twelve  hour  periods  between 
milkings.  If  milked  three  times  a  day,  they  should  be  milked  at 
eight  hour  periods;  and  if  four  times  a  day,  at  six  hour  periods. 

The  ultimate  test  of  the  efficiency  of  the  milker  is  the  daily 
milk  sheet.  One  of  the  biggest  reasons  for  weighing  the  milk  daily 
is  that  the  milker  may  check  his  efficiency  and  that  the  farm 
owner  may  know  exactly  what  results  each  milker  is  obtaining. 
A  drop  in  milk  production  is  registered  by  the  scales  and  will 
call  for  an  explanation.  This  may  be  found  in  poor  milking  or 
in  careless  milking.  It  may  be  found  in  a  disturbance  in  the 
stable  or  in  some  organic  trouble  in  the  cow  herself.  Whatever 
the  cause  may  be,  daily  weighing  of  the  milk  is  the  surest  way 
to  detect  it. 

1.  Are  larger  yields  of  milk  obtained  from  fast  or  slow  milking 

and  why?     M  :  70. 

2.  What  percentage  of  fat  may  be  found  in  the  first  milk  drawn 

and  what  percentage  in  the  strippings?      M  :  70.      E  :  219. 
HM  :  253. 

3.  Describe  the  process  by  which  milk  is  formed  in  the  cow's 

udder.     HM  :  80. 


2.  —  Milking  Cows  by  Machine 

There  are  now  on  the  market  several  kinds  of  milking  machines 
which  have  been  thoroughly  tested  and  found  practicable.  The 
mechanical  principle  upon  which  these  machines  work  varies 
with  the  type  of  machine,  and  the  method  of  applying  that 
principle  is  worked  out  in  a  different  way  in  each  machine.  The 
dairyman  who  uses  a  milking  machine  should,  first  of  all,  thor- 
oughly master  all  of  its  mechanical  details  and  adjustments. 


MILKING  AND   BEDDING   THE   COW  91 

An  experienced  dairyman  of  good  judgment  in  one  of  the  greatest 
dairy  sections  in  the  Eastern  States  once  declared  that  he  could, 
with  his  automobile,  drive  in  less  than  an  hour  to  a  farm  where 
any  one  of  the  standard  types  of  the  milking  machine  had  worked 
out  successfully,  or  within  the  same  time  he  could  drive  to  a  farm 
where  any  one  of  the  standard  types  had  been  a  failure. 

Nearly  all  of  the  machines  are  operated  by  gasoline  engines  and 
the  engine  has  perhaps  caused  more  trouble  than  the  machine. 
In  purchasing  an  engine  for  this  purpose  always  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  to  be  used  twice  daily  and  every  day  in  the  year.  In  other 
words  this  must  be  a  most  dependable  machine.  Money  should 
not  be  wasted  in  cheap,  poorly  made  engines,  which  will  alwaj^s 
cause  trouble.  The  best  and  most  "fool-proof"  engine  on  the 
market  should  be  purchased  for  this  purpose. 

Always  strip  cows  after  machine  milking.  This  stripping  may 
and  should  be  very  short,  but  should  never  be  omitted.  By  strip- 
ping, the  observant  dairyman  will  learn  the  condition  of  the  cow's 
udder  and  teats  and  whether  or  not  she  is  giving  bloody  or  thick 
milk.  Many  a  case  has  occurred  where  garget  had  spread  through 
a  large  part  of  the  herd  before  it  was  discovered,  simply  because 
the  cows  were  all  milked  by  machine  and  the  careless  dairyman 
had  not  observed  the  condition  of  the  udder  or  the  condition  of 
the  milk.  Stripping  after  the  machine  and  careful  watching  of 
the  milk  sheets  will  give  you  an  accurate  indication  of  the  condi- 
tion of  each  cow  at  every  milking. 

Milking  machines  save  considerable  labor  and  make  it  possible 
for  the  dairjTTian  to  milk  all  of  his  cows  without  assistance  in  case 
of  labor  trouble  or  temporary  lack  of  help.  The  milking  machine, 
when  well  handled,  will  ordinarily  milk  seven  or  eight  cows  per 
hour  for  each  single  unit.  The  good  dairyman  who  is  using  a 
milking  machine  will  give  all  of  his  time  and  attention  to  the  work 
in  hand.  The  man  who  stops  to  talk  or  sits  down  in  the  barn  door 
to  rest  while  the  machine  is  running  will  surely  get  into  trouble. 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  milking  by  machine  consists  of  applying 
one  of  the  most  delicately  constructed  machines  to  one  of  the  most 
highly  developed  of  animals.     To  obtain  good  results  a  high  degree 


92  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  operator  and  constant  attention  to  de- 
tails are  necessary. 

3.  —  Ailments  to  Be  Treated  at  Time  of  Milking 

(1)  Bloody  milk.  —  Cows  very  often  produce  bloody  milk. 
Traces  of  blood  are  commonly  found  in  the  separator  bowl  after 
milk  has  been  separated.  This  is  not  necessarily  an  indication  of 
disease  or  serious  injury.  It  more  likely  is  an  evidence  of  a  slight 
rupture  of  a  small  blood  vessel  in  the  udder  or  of  a  slight  injury 
to  the  udder  or  teats.  If  the  bloody  milk  persists,  care  should  be 
taken  to  determine  the  cause.  It  may  be  the  result  of  an  injury 
caused  by  other  cows  stepping  upon  the  udder  in  the  stable,  or  it 
may  be  the  result  of  internal  trouble  which  will  require  the  services 
of  a  veterinarian.  Ordinarily,  bloody  milk  will  clear  up  within  a 
few  days. 

(2)  Leaking  teats.  —  Some  cows,  when  their  udders  become 
full,  leak  their  milk  badly.  This  results  in  a  loss  of  milk  and  will 
often  cause  an  unsanitary,  bad  smelling  stable.  If  there  are  leak- 
ing cows  in  the  herd,  milk  them  as  soon  as  they  are  put  into  the 
stable.  There  is  very  little  we  can  do  to  prevent  leaking.  Teat 
plugs  may  be  used,  but  they  are  dangerous  and  liable  to  cause 
infection.  They  also  drop  out  easily.  A  drop  of  collodion  on  the 
end  of  the  teat  after  milking  will  sometimes  seal  it  over  until  the 
next  milking  and  prevent  leaking.  These  expedients  require  time 
and  are  at  best  rather  unsatisfactory.  If  a  cow  is  a  persistent 
leaker  and  leaks  throughout  most  of  her  lactation  period  and  to 
such  an  extent  that  she  is  unprofitable,  she  should  be  disposed  of. 

(3)  Chapped  teats  and  injuries.  —  A  cow's  teats  often  become 
chapped  and  sore.  Many  times  also  their  skins  become  injured 
by  slight  scratches  from  berry  bushes  or  from  other  causes.  Care- 
less milking  at  this  time  will  often  develop  the  habit  of  kicking. 
Whenever  the  teats  are  sore  or  chapped,  thoroughly  rub  them 
before  milking  with  vaseline  or  some  oil  that  will  soften  the  skin 
and  prevent  hurting.  If  no  vaseline  or  oil  is  at  hand,  rub  the  teat 
carefully  so  that  the  first  squeeze  of  the  hand  will  not  open  up 
cracks  which  are  beginning  to  heal  and  cause  them  to  bleed. 


MILKING  AND  BEDDING  THE  COW  93 

Occasionally  warts  develop  upon  the  teats.  These  crack  open 
and  bleed  so  that  they  cause  the  same  discomfort  to  the  cow  as 
is  caused  by  any  other  injury  to  the  teat.  They  should  be  treated 
with  vaseline  or  sweet  oil,  and  some  method  used  to  remove  them. 

(4)  Preventing  kicking.  —  If  a  heifer  is  properly  handled  before 
milking  and  at  the  time  when  she  is  being  broken  to  milking,  she 
will  seldom  develop  into  a  kicker.  Cows  which  have  acquired  the 
habit  of  kicking  are  sometimes  hard  to  break  and  are  very  dis- 
agreeable to  milk.  A  rope  or  strap  fastened  around  both  hind 
legs  just  above  the  hocks  and  crossed  between  the  legs  so  that  it 
takes  the  form  of  a  figure  eight,  will  prevent  the  cow  from  kicking. 

In  cases  which  have  not  become  too  persistent,  a  strap  or  rope 
may  be  fastened  around  the  body,  just  in  front  of  the  udder  and 
drawn  tight.  This  will  usually  prevent  the  cow  from  kicking. 
After  this  has  been  done  for  a  few  days,  simply  laying  the  strap 
or  rope  across  the  cow's  back  at  milking  time  will  generally  prevent 
kicking.  A  cow  that  persistently  kicks,  that  must  be  strapped 
at  every  milking,  and  that  will  sometimes  throw  herself  when 
strapped,  is  generally  a  damage  to  the  herd  and  should  be  dis- 
posed of.  The  excitement  in  the  herd  caused  by  her  troubles 
and  her  effect  upon  the  milker's  disposition,  will  ordinarily  offset 
any  profit  which  it  is  possible  for  her  to  produce. 

1.  What  is  inflammation  of  the  udder  and  how  should  it  be 

treated?     EW:    158. 

4.  —  Bedding  the  Dairy  Cow 

The  best  bedding  for  the  dairy  cow  is  good,  clean  straw.  If 
this  can  be  chopped  or  run  through  a  cutting  machine,  it  will 
go  much  farther  than  if  used  whole.  When  straw  is  not  avail- 
able, sawdust  or  shavings  make  a  suitable  substitute.  These  are 
not  so  desirable  from  the  manurial  standpoint,  however,  as  they 
decay  very  slowly  in  the  soil. 

Bedding  should  do  two  things:  It  should  make  the  cow  com- 
fortable by  giving  her  a  soft,  warm  substance  upon  which  to  lie, 
and  it  should  absorb  the  liquid  manure,  so  as  to  prevent  loss  of 


94  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

fertility.  In  dairy  regions  wiiere  little  grain  is  raised  such  sub- 
stances as  coal  ashes,  ground  limestone,  and  occasionally  sand 
or  muck  are  used  as  absorbents  but  rarely  for  bedding. 

1.  Obtain  catalogues  of  three  different  kinds  of  milking  machines 

commonly  used  in  your  neighborhood.  Study  the  essential 
points  of  difference.  Answer  the  following  questions  for 
each  machine: 

(1)  How  much  vacuum  is  recommended? 

(2)  How  powerful  an  engine  is  used? 

(3)  Upon  what  principle  does  the  teat  cup  work? 

(4)  Where  is  the  pulsator? 

(5)  What  cleaning  solutions  are  recommended  for  clean- 

ing the  machine? 

2.  Visit  a  dairy  where  a  milking  machine  is  used;    study  its  use 

and  obtain  answers  to  the  above  questions. 

3.  Using  the  project  herd  or  some  near-by  herd,  make  a  record  of 

the  average  time  required  to  milk  a  cow  by  hand  and  by 
machine.  Compute  the  average  number  of  cows  milked  per 
hour  by  hand  and  by  machine. 

4.  In  milking  by  hand  which  teats  should  be  milked  at  the  same 

time?     VaP:261. 

5.  What  is  the  Hegelund  method  of  udder  manipulation?     How 

is  it  done  and  what  are  the  results?  What  are  the  reasons 
for  these?     VaP  :  265-269. 

6.  What  is  the  relation  between  udder  troubles  and  methods  of 

milking?     VaP  :  270. 

7.  Do  most  farmers  in  your  region  raise  enough  straw  for  bedding 

for  their  cows? 

8.  What  is  the  market   price  on  each  of  the  common  bedding 

materials  in  your  locality? 


MILKING  AND   BEDDING   THE   COW  95 

9.  Describe  the  tissues  of  the  udder  and  the  function  of  each.     VaP  :  258. 

10.  How  important  is  a  knowledge  of  the  proper  methods  of  milking  con- 

sidered to  be  in  Denmark  f    VaP  :  266. 

11.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  name  "Cow-slappers"f     VaP  :  265. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SELECTING  AND  HANDLING  THE  BULL 

1.  Select  a  bull  of  good  type  and  individuality 

2.  Select  a  bull  of  pure  breeding 

3.  Select  a  bull  with  a  good  pedigree 

4.  Feed  and  develop  the  bull  properly 


Fig.  26.  —  Hobsland  Perfect  Piece,  Ayrshire  bull.     A  fine  iiKlividual,  well 
handled  with  staff  and  rinfi. 

90 


SELECTING  AND  HANDLING  THE  BULL  97 

1.  —  Select  a  Bull  of  Good  Type  and  Individuality 

In  selecting  a  bull  to  head  the  dairy  herd,  the  first  thing  to 
look  for  is  good  individuality.  In  general,  he  should  possess 
the  same  characteristics  and  qualities  that  we  look  for  in  a  good 
dairy  cow  and  that  are  described  in  the  second  chapter. 

In  addition,  however,  the  bull  should  be  masculine  in  every 
characteristic.  His  head  should  be  larger  and  coarser  and  of  a 
decidedly  masculine  type.  The  neck  should  be  high,  thick,  and 
entirely  different  from  the  fine,  thin  neck  that  we  look  for  in  the 
dairy  type  of  cow.  He  should  have  bright,  prominent  eyes,  set 
well  apart,  a  broad  muzzle,  large  nostrils,  and  a  deep,  broad 
chest.  He  should  have  large  abdominal  capacity,  a  mellow,  loose, 
soft  hide,  and  some  indications  of  spareness  of  flesh.  These  char- 
acteristics are  in  general  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  dairy 
cow,  but  the  bull  in  every  case  should  be  larger  and  coarser  than 
the  cow.  We  should  expect  to  find  a  much  thicker  hide  than 
the  cow's,  but  this  does  not  excuse  a  hide  so  thick  and  stiff  that 
it  is  lacking  in  mellowness.  From  the  shoulders  backward  the 
bull  should  have  much  the  same  conformation  as  the  cow.  The 
masculine  type  should  be  chiefly  shown  in  the  head  and  neck. 

Many  breeders  place  a  great  deal  of  importance  on  large  rudi- 
mentary teats,  squarely  placed  and  far  apart.  Above  all,  the  bull 
should  have  a  resolute,  active  style  and  all  other  indications  of 
good  constitutional  vigor.  As  in  the  case  of  the  cow,  especial 
importance  is  generally  given  to  a  long,  straight  back,  and  to  a 
long,  broad,  level  rump. 

The  bull  should  be  a  true  type  of  his  breed.  That  is,  if  he  is 
a  Jersey,  he  should  come  as  near  as  possible  to  perfection  in  the 
characteristics  for  which  the  Jersey  breeders  have  been  breeding 
during  many  generations.  If  he  is  a  Holstein,  he  should  be  true 
to  the  Holstein  type;  and  if  of  any  other  breed,  true  to  the  type 
of  that  breed.  Trueness  to  type  indicates  a  strong  concentration 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  in  this  one  individual,  and 
should  result  in  the  ability  of  this  individual  to  produce  offspring 
which  are  true  to  the  type  of  the  breed.    In  all  auctions  of  pure 


98  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

bred  stock  during  the  past  few  years  one  feature  has  been  out- 
standing. Breeders  are  unwilling  to  buy  a  bull  of  poor  individuality, 
no  matter  how  excellently  bred.  The  first  basis  of  selection  among 
dairymen  is,  and  rightfully  should  be,  good  individuality. 

2.  —  Select  a  Bull  of  Pure  Breeding 

Always  use  a  pure  bred,  registered  bull,  no  matter  what  sort 
of  cows  you  may  possess.  The  pure  bred  animal  is  one  which  has 
been  bred  true  to  a  certain  type  for  many  generations.  For  a 
long  time  no  outside,  or  distantly  related,  blood  has  been  intro- 
duced. A  pure  bred  bull,  then,  represents  a  strong  concentration 
of  certain  characteristics.  When  crossed  with  cows  of  mixed,  or 
less  pure,  breeding,  these  strongly  fixed  characteristics  of  the 
bull  will  nearly  always  be  perpetuated  in  the  offspring,  displacing 
the  less  firmly  fixed  and  less  concentrated  characteristics  of  the 
poorly  bred  cow.  We  call  this  ability  of  the  animal  to  transmit 
its  own  characteristics  to  its  offspring  prepotency.  It  is  highly 
important  that  the  dairy  bull  possess  prepotency.  If  he  is  lack- 
ing in  this  characteristic,  he  will  be  a  failure  in  the  herd,  as  his 
offspring  will  be  no  improvement  over  their  dams.  If  the  bull 
possesses  strong  constitutional  vigor  and  purity  and  closeness  of 
breeding  he  will  nearly  always  be  prepotent. 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  a  bull  better  bred  than  the  cows 
even  to  retain  the  milk  production  at  a  uniform  level? 
E  :  154. 

3.  —  Select  a  Bull  with  a  Good  Pedigree 

In  selecting  a  bull  you  should  examine  not  only  the  bull's  indi- 
viduality and  his  purity  of  breeding,  but  should,  so  far  as  possible, 
study  the  records  of  his  ancestors.  It  is  very  important  to  know 
what  his  dam  and  his  sire's  dam  have  done  in  the  way  of  produc- 
tion. It  is  also  important  to  know  what  sort  of  daughters  his  sire 
has  produced  and  what  sort  of  daughters  have  been  produced  by 
each  sire  in  his  pedigree.  All  of  these  things  will  be  indications 
of  this  bull's  abilities. 


SELECTING  AND   HANDLING  THE   BULL  99 

Most  of  our  dairy  breeders  now  do  a  considerable  amount  of 
official  testing.  Through  the  official  records  of  these  tests  it  is 
easy  to  find  the  production  of  the  various  animals  in  the  bull's 
pedigree.  The  purchaser  may  examine  these  records  for  the  total 
amount  of  milk  produced,  or  the  percentage  of  butter  fat.  Better 
yet,  he  may  examine  them  for  a  good  balance  between  the  two 
factors. 

The  relative  importance  of  these  two  factors  will  vary  with  the 
breed  and  with  the  product  to  be  marketed.  In  the  East,  where 
the  main  product  is  market  milk,  the  total  amount  of  milk  pro- 
duced is  probably  the  better  factor  to  consider.  The  premium 
generally  paid  in  the  market  for  an  additional  richness  in  butter 
fat  is  insufficient  to  give  much  importance  to  this  feature.  In 
sections  where  butter  is  sold,  the  total  amount  of  butter  produced 
will  be  the  more  important  factor.  If  the  breeder  has  a  herd 
producing  milk  that  is  poor  in  butter  fat,  he  should  use,  as  a  sire, 
a  bull  whose  ancestors  have  produced  milk  that  was  higher  in 
butter  fat  so  as  to  improve  the  quality  of  his  herd  in  this  respect. 
In  like  manner  many  other  characteristics  of  the  herd  may  be 
improved  by  selecting  a  bull  that  is  strong  in  the  qualities  in  which 
the  herd  as  a  whole  is  weak. 

1.  V/hat  two  methods  may  be  used  in  selecting  a  herd  sire?     Give 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each.     E  :  163-167. 

4.  —  Feed  and  Develop  the  Bull  Properly 

The  young  bull  should  be  fed  generally  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  a  young  heifer.  After  he  has  been  weaned  from  skimmed  milk 
or  calf  food,  he  should  be  fed  an  abundance  of  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay  and  a  small  daily  portion  of  a  mixture  made  up  of  30  poimds 
of  corn,  30  pounds  of  oats,  30  pounds  of  bran,  and  10  pounds  of 
oil  meal.  The  growing  bull  should  not  be  fat,  but  only  in  good 
growing  condition.  Never  allow  the  mature  bull  to  become  fat 
during  the  breeding  season,  as  he  will  be  much  less  sure  in  breeding. 

Always  give  a  growing  bull  an  abundance  of  exercise.  This  will 
keep  him  vigorous  and  prevent  his  getting  overfat.     Exercise  may 


100 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 


be  given  by  running  in  pasture,  or  in  a  closed  paddock,  or  by  work- 
ing at  various  things,  such  as  on  a  tread  power.  Some  dairymen 
even  work  their  bulls  in  a  yoke  or  harness.  When  the  bull  is  about 
one  year  old  a  ring  should  be  placed  in  his  nose  to  make  it  easy  to 
lead  or  handle  him.  It  is  generally  better  not  to  dehorn  the  bull 
until  he  shows  some  signs  of  ugliness.     If  the  horns  are  removed 


Fig.  27. 


King  Pietertje  Ormsby  Piebe  1  "i  1       A  - ^ 
producing  Holsteiu  laicestiy 


from  high 


then  his  head  will  be  so  sore  for  a  few  days  that  the  memory  of 
this  time  will  always  tend  to  prevent  his  bunting  things. 

The  bull  should  never  be  teased,  plagued,  or  excited  more  than 
necessary.  He  should  be  handled  quietly  and  firmly.  The  wise 
dairyman  will  never  trust  a.  bull  or  take  any  chances  with  him, 
no  matter  how  kind  and  tractable  he  has  always  seemed  to  be. 
It  is  impossible  to  tell  when  the  kindest  and  gentlest  animal  is 
going  to  develop  into  one  of  the  most  ferocious.  The  one  safe 
way  is  to  handle  him  as  if  he  were  proved  to  be  ugly.     It  should 


SELECTINCx   AND   HANDLING   THE   BULL  101 

also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  large,  full-grown  bull  can  easily, 
in  a  spirit  of  play  and  without  any  intention  of  ugliness,  crush  a 
man's  body.  Many  instances  have  occurred  where  men  were 
seriously  injured  or  killed  by  bulls  that  probably  were  not  vicious 
but  only  playful. 

1.  At  what  age  may  bulls  be  used  for  service?     E  :  1 69.    HM  :  288 

2.  Why  is  it  a  bad  practice  to  allow  the  bull  to  run  with  the  herd? 

E-  170. 

3.  Suggest  a  ration  for  a  service  bull.     HM  :  288. 

4.  Using  the  score  card  given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  score  at 

least  one  bull  of  each  of  the  dairy  breeds. 

5.  Obtain  a  sales  catalogue  from  one  of  the  pubUc  sales  of  pure 

bred  cattle  of  any  breed.  Assign  to  each  member  of  the 
class  two  bull  pedigrees  to  be  discussed  before  the  class  as 
to  relative  values. 

6.  Using  a  pedigree  blank  such  as  are  used  in  the  sales  catalogue, 

compute  the  percentage  of  the  blood  of  each  ancestor  that 
the  individual  carries. 

7.  Using  a  catalogue  from  a  Holstein  sale  containing  pedigrees 

which  give  the  results  of  seven-day  tests,  select  individuals 
which  illustrate : 

a.  An  abnormally  high  percentage  of  butter  fat 

b.  An  undesirably  low  percentage  of  butter  fat 

c.  An  especially  large  yield  of  milk  per  day 

d.  An  especially  large  yield  of  milk  per  year 

e.  A  good  record  for  a  young  cow 

8.  Using  a  catalogue  as  in  number  7,  select  individuals  which  are 

inbred  and  compute  the  percentage  of  blood  which  they  carry 
of  some  ancestor  that  appears  more  than  once  in  the  pedi- 
gree. 


102 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


PARTS 


Head 

Foiehead . . . 
Face 

Muzzle 

Ears 

Eyes 

Horns 

Neck 

Shoulders    . 

Chest 

Crops 

Chine 

Barrel 

Loin    and 
Hips 

Rump 

Thurl 

Quarters 

Flanks 

Legs 

Tail 


DESCRIPTION 


Showing  full  vigor;  elegant  in  contour 

Discredit,  vs  K,  s  }4.  m  'i,  vm  Ji,  e  1 

Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing 

Discredit,  vs  H.  s  '4.  m  H.  vm  ^,  e  1. 
Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  especially  under  the 

eyes;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight 

Discredit,  s  ^.  m^,  e  ii. 

Broad,  with  strong  lips 

Discredit,  s  H.  m  H,  e  'A. 
Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful  and 

soft;  the  secretions  oily  and  abundant 

Discredit,  m  %,  e  H- 

Large;  full;  mild;  bright 

Discredit,  s  %.  m  '4,  e  'A. 
Short;   of  medium  size  at  base;   gradually  diminishing 
towards    tips;    oval;    inclining    forward;     moderately 
curved  inward;  of  fine  texture;  in  appearance  waxy. 
Discredit,  m  H,  e  M. 
Long;  finely  crested  (if  the  animal  is  mature);  fine  and 
clean   at   juncture    with   the   head;    nearly   free   from 
dewlap;  strongly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders.  .  . 
Discredit,  vs  J^,  s  U,  m  >4,  vm  H,  e  1. 
Of  medium  height;  of  medium  thickness,  and  smoothly 
rounded  at  tops;  broad  and  full  at  sides;  smooth  over 

front 

Discredit,  vs  H.  a  '4.  m  H,  vm  H.  e  1. 
Deep  and  low;   well   filled  and  smooth  in  the  brisket; 
broad   between   the   forearms;   full   in    the   foreflanks 

(or  through  at  the  heart) 

Discredit,  vs  'i.  s  ^2,  m  1,  vm  m,  e  2. 
Comparatively  full;  nearly  level  with  the  shoulders    .  .  . 

Discredit,  vs  M.  s  K.  m  1,  vm  IK,  e  2. 
Strong;  straight;  broadly  developed,  with  open  vertebrae 

Discredit,  vs  H,  s  K.  m  H,  vm  %,  e  1. 
Long;  well  rounded;  with  large  abdomen,  strongly  and 

trimly  held  up 

Discredit,  vs  H,  s  A,  m  1,  vm  \A.  e  2. 

Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  hook  bones;  lev(  1  ard 

strong  laterally;  spreading  out  from  the  chine  broadly 

and  nearly  level;  the  hook  bones  fairly  prominent.  .  .  . 

Discredit,  vs  H.  s  14.  m  'a.  vm  K,  e  1. 

Long;  broad;  high;  nearly  level  laterally;  comparatively 

full  above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  dropping 

of  tail 

Discredit,  vs  J^.  s  '4,  m  A,  vm  %,  e  1. 

High ;  broad 

Discredit,  vs  H.  s  K,  m  1,  vm  I  A,  e  2. 
Deep;  broad;  straight  behind;  wide  and  full  at  sides; 

open  in  the  twist 

Discredit,  vs  J^,  s  M,  m  A,  vm  %,  e  1. 

Deep ;  full 

Discredit,  vs  A.  a  H,  ra  A,  vm  %,  e  1. 
Comparatively  short;   clean  and   nearly  straight;   wide 
apart;  firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  arms 
wide,  strong  and  tapering;  feet  of  medium  size,  round, 

solid  and  deep 

Discredit,  vs  A.  s  H.  m  A,  vm  M,  e  1. 
Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely  to 
switch;  the  end  of  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below;  the 

switch  full 

Discredit,  s  A,  m  '4,  e  i?. 


Possible 
Score 


Dis- 
credits 


Fig.  28— Scale  of  Points  for  Dairy  Bull.* 

The  interlined  "discredits"  relate  entirely  to  the  method  of  application  agreed  upon 
by  the  Inspectors,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  work.  The  abbreviations  are  as  follows: 
vs,  very  slight;  s,  slight;  m,  marked;  vm,  very  marked;  e,  extreme. 

♦Furnished  by  Holstein-Friesian  Association, 


SELECTING   AxND  HANDLING  THE   BULL 


103 


Hair  and 
Handling 


Rudiment- 
ary Teats. 

Escutcheon . 


DESCRIPTION 

Brought  Forward 

Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft  and  furry;  skin 
of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow  under  the  hand; 
the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of  a  rich  brown  or 

yellow  color 

Discredit,  vs  J'i.  s  M,  m  1,  vm  IJ^,  e  2. 
Large;    full;    entering   large   orifices;    double   extension; 
with   special   development,   such   as  forks,   branches, 

connections,  etc 

Discredit,  vs  H.  s  'A,  m  1,  vm  I 'A,  e  2. 

Large ;  well  placed 

Discredit,  vs  K.  s  H,  m  Vi,  vm  %.  e  1. 
Largest;  finest 

Discredit,  vs  ^2.  s  1,  m  2,  vm  3,  e  4. 


Possible 
Score 


Dis- 
credits 


Fig.  28. — Scale  of  Points  for  Dairy  Bull.* — Continued. 
♦Furnished  by  Holstcin-Friesian  Association. 

9.  From  any  sales  catalogue  giving  pedigrees  suggest  a  combination  of 
five  females  and  one  male  which  would  make  a  good  foundation  herd 
for  a  man  with  small  capital.     Give  reasons. 

10.  Is  there  any  relation  beticeen  dehorning  and  lack  of  prepotency? 

E  :  172. 

11.  Why  is  a  bull  from  a  dairy  breed  more  liable  to  be  ugly  than  one  from 

a  beef  breed?    E  :  172. 


12.  Is  there  any  relation  between  age  of  the  dam  and  prepotency  of  the  bull? 
E  :  168. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PROVIDING  A   SANITARY  AND   HANDY   STABLE   FOR  A 
HEALTHY  AND  PROFITABLE  HERD 

1.  Give  the  cow  plenty  of  good  fresh  air 

2.  Give  the  cow  plenty  of  light 

3.  Keep  the  stable  at  an  even  temperature 

4.  Arrange  the  stable  conveniently 

In  order  to  obtain  efficient  winter  production  from  dairy 
cattle,  you  must  simulate  summer  conditions  in  housing  as  well 
as  in  feeding.  The  production  of  milk  during  the  winter  months 
is  unseasonable  and  unnatural  for  the  dairy  cow.  For  this  reason 
it  is  more  necessary  to  study  the  cow's  environment  and  general 
management  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer.  This  chapter 
will  consider  largely  the  problems  which  you  must  face  when 
you  bring  your  cows  from  pasture  and  begin  to  stable  them  in 
the  fall.  The  construction  and  ideal  arrangement  of  dairy  build- 
ings will  be  considered  in  a  later  chapter. 

1.  —  Give  the  Cow  Plentj^  of  Good  Fresh  Air 

Pure  air  is  as  essential  to  cows  as  to  human  beings.  To  insure 
keeping  them  in  good  health  and  at  the  maximum  production, 
ventilation  must  be  provided.  For  a  small  number  of  cows  this 
may  be  done  by  windows  or  hay  chutes,  or  by  other  openings. 
A  more  satisfactory  way,  and  a  necessary  way  when  a  large  herd 
is  kept,  is  to  provide  a  regular  ventilating  system. 

There  are  two  important  ventilating  systems  in  general  use 
known  as  the  King  and  the  Rutherford.     In  the  King  system, 

104 


A  SANITARY  AND   HANDY  STABLE 


105 


one  large  flue,  or  more,  opening;  near  the  floor  of  the  stable  and 
extending  through  the  roof,  carries  away  the  foul  air  that,  being 
heavier  than  fresh  air,  has  settled  to  the  floor.  At  the  same  time, 
fresh  air  is  taken  in  through  many  small  pipes  which  extend 
through  the  wall  and  open  into  the  top  of  the  stable  near  the 
ceiling.  These  pipes  bend  downward  and  their  openings  to  the 
outside  air  are  considerably  lower  than  their  inner  ends.  Thus 
the  warm  air  of  the  stable  is  trapped  so  that  it  cannot  flow  down 
a  pipe  and  out  of  the  stable  against  the  heavier  cold  air  which 
fills  that  pipe.     Generally,  a  ventilator  is  placed  on  top  of  the 


/e/yf/hrfor  heac/ 


yTmiTi^      ffurM£j?Fo/f0    ^rsrfAi  Kz/ye  system 


Fig.  29. — A  section  through  a  shed  roof  stable  showing  an  adaptation  of  either 
the  Rutherford  system  or  the  King  system  to  this  type  of  construction. — 
Vermont  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  28. 


106 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 


outlet  flue.  This  creates  a  suction  which  aids  in  moving  the  foul 
air  from  the  stable  up  the  flue  through  the  roof.  To  insure  the 
working  of  this  flue  it  must  be  made  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible. 
The  Rutherford  system  is  in  common  use  in  Canada  but  not 
in  the  Ignited  States.    In  this  system,  air  is  admitted  to  the  floor 


Fig.  .30. — Section  through  a  stable  showing  the  construction  of  the  King 
system  of  ventilation.  Fresh  air  is  admitted  in  front  of  the  animals  at 
the  ceiling  and  the  foul  air  removed  from  behind  them  near  the  floor. — 
Vermont  Department  of  .\griculture,  Bulletin  28. 


A  SANITARY  AND   HANDY  STABLE 


107 


Air  breathed  in 
24  hours 

Oxygen  consumed  in 
24  hours 

Animal 

Per  1,000 

pounds  of 

weight 

Per  head 

Per  1,000 

pounds  of 

weight 

Per  head 

Man         

Cubic  feet 
2,833 
3,401 

2,804 
7,353 
7,259 

8,278 

Cubic  feet 

425 

3,401 

2,804 

1,103 

726 

24.84 

Pounds 

12.207 

13.272 

11.04 

29.698 

29.314 

24.84 

Pounds 
1.831 

Horse 

13.272 

Cow  

11.04 

Swine                   

4.456 

Sheep 

2.931 

Hen                  

.075 

Fig.  31. — Air  and  oxygen  requirements  in  twenty-four  hours  per  one  thousand 
pounds  weight  of  animal- — King. 


of  the  stable  through  a  pipe  from  the  outside.  Provision  is  gener- 
ally made  for  deflecting  this  air  towards  the  ceiling.  The  pipe 
that  takes  out  the  foul  air  is  built  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
King  system,  but  starts  from  the  ceiling  of  the  stable  instead  of 
near  the  floor.  An  adjustable  damper  is  placed  in  this  pipe  so 
as  to  control  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  air. 

Ventilation  seems  to  take  place  more  rapidly  through  the 
Rutherford  system  than  through  the  King  system;  and,  as  a 
result,  the  Rutherford  system  ordinarily  uses  smaller  pipes.  As 
this  system  has  never  come  into  general  favor  among  dairymen 
in  the  United  States,  all  figures  given  in  this  chapter  will  apply 
to  the  King  system  only.  In  both  systems  it  is  essential  that 
the  stable  should  be  fairly  tight,  with  no  large  quantity  of  air 
entering  or  leaving  through  cracks,  windows  or  other  openings, 
if  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  regular  ventilating  flues  is 
to  be  insured. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  expensive  intake  flues  for  the  King 
system.  In  many  regions  sections  of  galvanized  pipe  of  the  same 
size  as  the  ordinary  stove  pipe  are  used.  A  straight  piece  is  in- 
serted through  the  stable  wall,  an  elbow  is  placed  on  the  outer 


108 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


end  and  one  length  attached  to  this,  extending  downward.  If  an 
ordinary  damper  is  placed  in  the  section  which  extends  through 
the  stable  wall,  we  have  a  very  economical  and  efficient  intake  pipe. 

Often  it  seems  advis- 
able to  have  the  outtake 
pipes  located  in  the 
stable  at  a  place  such 
that  they  hinder  the 
operation  of  ensilage 
carts  or  other  stable 
equipment,  or  are  very 
much  in  the  way  when 
you  drive  through  with 
the  manure  spreader. 
This  may  be  avoided  by 
bringing  the  wooden  ven- 
tilating flue  just  to  the 
ceiling  of  the  stable  and 
extending  it  from  there 
to  its  position  near  the 
floor  by  means  of  a 
heavy  canvas  tube  made 
of  the  same  size  as  the 
ventilating  flue.  A  light 
wooden  frame  should  be 
placed  in  the  lower  end 
of  this  canvas  tube  to 
keep  it  open.  This  can- 
vas may  be  easily  swung 
aside  or  hung  on  a  hook 


Fig.  32.  —  The"  entire  first  story  of  this 
barn  is  used  for  manure  storage  and  the 
dairy  herd  is  stabled  above.  This  is  ex- 
pensive and  unsanitary.  An  inexpensive 
manure  pit  would  be  more  sanitary  and 
efficient. 


near    the   ceiling   whenever  it  is  in  the  way. 

1.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  ventilate  stables?     Ki :  350. 

2.  How  many  cubic  feet  of  air  does  a  1000  pound  cow  breathe  in 

twenty-four  hours?     Ki  :  'A54.     See,  also,  Fig.  31. 


A  SANITARY  AND   HANDY  STABLE 


109 


3.   What  are  the  causes  of  the  movcincnt  of  air  currotts  into  and  from 
a  ventilated  stable?    Ki :  358. 


x\ssuming  that 


Computing  the  size  of  intake  and  outtake  Hues 
the  average  velocity  of 
air  in  the  flue  that  carries 
foul  air  out  is  300  feet 
per  minute,  you  should 
provide  outtake  flues 
with  a  cross  section  area 
of  1  square  foot  for  each 
five  cows  or  their  equiva- 
lent. The  combined  cross 
section  area  of  the  intake 
flues  should  exceed  this 
by  about  10  per  cent.  A 
stable  containing  twenty 
cows  would  require  out- 
take flu3s  with  a  total 
cross  section  area  of  4 
square  feet,  and  intake 
flues  with  a  total  cross 
section  area  of  10  per 
C3nt  more  than  this,  or 
4.4  square  feet.  These 
figures  apply  to  the  King 
system  of  ventilation 
only. 

It  is  important  to  re- 
member that  air  space 
measured  even  in  a  large 
number  of  cubic  feet 
does    not    insure     good 

ventilation,  but  that  some  provision  must  be  made  for  changing 
the  air.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  in  all  our  ventilation 
work   that   warm    air  rises  to   the   ceiHng,  and  that  bad  air  is 


Fig.  33.  —  The  cow  stable  is  on  the  second 
floor  of  this  barn  and  the  cows  must  climb 
a  flight  of  18  steps  to  get  to  the  stable. 
The  first  floor  is  used  only  for  a  manure 
pit.  An  unsanitary,  unhandy,  and  dan- 
gerous arrangement. 


110  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

heavier  than  pure  air  of  the  same  temperature  and  tends  to 
settle  to  the  floor.  Cold  air  is  not  necessarily  pure  air.  A  damp, 
bad  smelling  stable  should  remind  you  at  once  that  better  ven- 
tilation must  be  provided,  if  your  cows  are  to  be  kept  healthy 
and  if  sanitary  milk  is  to  be  produced  in  an  economical  manner. 

2.  —  Give  the  Cow  Plenty  of  Light 
In  every  cow  stable  there  should  be  provided  from  three  to  four 
square  feet  of  window  space  per  cow.  If  these  windows  are  well 
placed  some  light  will  reach  all  parts  of  the  stable.  SunUght  is 
nature's  greatest  disinfectant.  SunUght  is  also  the  cheapest  disin- 
fectant, and  it  works  every  sunny  day  killing  harmful  bacteria 
whether  you  know  that  they  exist  or  not.  A  light,  well  ventilated 
stable  will  seldom  harbor  any  disease  germs.  It  is  said  that  direct 
sunlight  will  kill  the  germs  of  tuberculosis  in  a  few  minutes. 
SunUght  also  reveals  dirt  and  brings  any  unsanitary  conditions 
to  your  notice.  For  this  reason  the  Ught  stable  is  ordinarily  kept 
much  cleaner  than  the  dark  stable. 

To  be  most  efficient,  windows  should  be  placed  vertically  rather 
than  horizontally,  as  vertical  windows  allow  the  sunlight  to 
extend  more  nearly  across  the  stable  and  cover  the  floor  space 
more  completely.  If  possible,  the  barn  should  extend  north  and 
south  rather  than  east  and  west.  This  will  allow  windows  to  be 
placed  on  the  east  and  west  sides,  thus  admitting  sunlight  to 
the  stable  aU  through  the  day.  All  windows  should  be  placed 
flush  with  the  wall  on  the  inside  so  as  to  prevent  an  accummu- 
lation  of  dust.  If  a  window  is  dirty  it  is  not  giving  full  service. 
Throughout  the  winter  the  stable  windows  should  be  kept  so 
clean  that  light  passes  freely  through  them. 

If  more  than  four  square  feet  of  window  space  is  provided  for 
each  cow,  the  stable  may  be  too  cold.  Moreover,  an  excess  of 
windows  may  give  too  much  light  and  be  hard  on  the  cows' 
eyes.  A  good  way  of  Ughting  up  the  stable  after  sufficient  window 
space  has  been  provided  is  to  paint  the  interior  with  white  paint 
or  to  whitewash  it.  This  will  diffuse  the  light  within  it  and  at 
the  same  time  make  the  stable  more  sanitary. 


A  SANITARY  AND  HANDY  STABLE  111 

1.  What  factors  affect  the  efficiency  of  windows  in  lighting  a 
building?     K  :  348. 

3.  —  Keep  the  Stable  at  an  Even  Temperature 

Some  dairy  stables  are  kept  too  warm;  some  too  cold;  and  in 
many  stables  the  temperature  varies  too  much.  Repeated  experi- 
ments by  farmers  and  at  various  experiment  stations  have  proved 
that  cows  may  be  kept  very  healthy  and  may  produce  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  milk  economically  when  housed  only  in  a 


,!^pL 

-^ 

''"^'ii^H^-  ■il^ 

^^^r^^ 

3--*^ 

*-^ 

■^^ 

^^^    f"1 

— -^m  « 

QI^^^^H 

Wl^wm  ^^  \ 

^-"^i- 

^^^BIHil^^^^^Si 

Fig.  34.  —  A  small  well  planned  barn  capable  of  housing  about  twenty  head 
of  cattle.  Note  the  attached  manure  pit,  also  two  silos  so  arranged 
that  they  can  both  be  filled  without  moving  the  cutter. 

shed,  open  but  protected  from  the  wind.  When  cows  are  pro- 
ducing large  quantities  of  milk,  it  is  cheaper  to  house  them  in 
a  well  ventilated,  light,  and  moderately  warm  stable  than  to  use 
extra  quantities  of  feed  for  warming  their  bodies. 

Young  stock  and  dry  stock  may  very  often  be  roughed  through 
the  winter  in  an  open  shed  or  covered  barnyard  and  be  kept  in 
as  healthy,  growing  a  condition  as  if  they  were  in  heated  stables. 
Cattle  that  are  thus  exposed  to  the  cold  will,  of  course,  have  a 


112  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

rougher  coat.  Because  of  this,  owners  of  pure  bred  stock  and 
dairymen  who  deal  in  stock  find  it  advisable  to  house  their  cattle 
to  keep  them  looking  better. 

A  dairy  herd  which  is  housed  in  a  very  warm  stable  but  occasion- 
ally turned  out  into  cliilly  air  will  suffer  more  and  produce  less 
milk,  than  the  herd  which  is  kept  uniformly  under  cool  conditions. 
The  important  factor  to  remember  is  that  the  herd  should  be  kept 
at  as  equable  a  temperature  as  possible  and  not  too  warm. 

1.  What  range  of  temperature  is  permissible  in  the  dairy  stable 
in  winter?     What  is  the  best  temperature?     W-PD  :  186. 


4.  —  Arrange  the  Stable  Conveniently 

It  is  worth  while  for  you  to  stud}'^  the  interior  arrangement  of 
the  cow  stable.  Remember  that  any  loss  of  time  occasioned  by 
an  unhandy  arrangement  will  be  repeated  every  day  of  the  stabling 
season,  or  approximately'^  six  months  in  the  year.  This  means  a 
loss  of  a  large  number  of  hours  in  a  year  or  period  of  years.  You 
should  study  the  stable  arrangement  and  the  methods  of  doing 
the  work  with  a  view  to  eliminating  all  waste  motion  and  unneces- 
sary labor. 

The  milking  cows  should  always  be  placed  together  in  one  sec- 
tion of  the  stable,  and  the  dry  stock  and  the  young  cattle  by 
themselves.  This  saves  extra  travel  in  milking  and  often  means 
that  all  the  milking  can  be  done  by  one  light  rather  than  by 
several.  It  is  also  more  economical  in  feeding.  All  cattle  should 
be  kept  close  together  and  on  the  same  floor  of  the  barn.  If  you 
have  cattle  in  two  different  stables  or  on  different  barn  floors, 
extra  traveling  is  required.  So  far  as  possible,  you  should  plan 
to  have  all  hay,  all  bedding,  and  all  feed  come  from  the  storage 
above  to  a  central  part  of  the  stable  from  which  all  of  the  cows 
are  nearly  equally  distant.  This  makes  for  economy  of  time 
and  labor. 

The  manure  which  the  cow  produces,  because  of  its  water 
content,  is  heavier  than  the  feed  which  is  carried  to  her.     It  is 


A  SANITARY  AND  HANDY  STABLE 


113 


therefore  more  important  to  provide  an  economical  method  of 
removing  the  manure  from  the  stable  than  to  provide  an  economi- 
cal method  for  bringing  the  feed  to  the  cow.  Overhead  htter 
carriers,  or  provisions  for  driving  through  with  the  manure 
spreader  or  wagon,  are  the  most  efficient  methods.  If  manure 
must  be  wheeled  a  long  distance  in  a  wheelbarrow  or  carried  a 
long  distance  with  a  shovel  or  fork,  there  is  a  loss  in  time  and 
money. 


Fig.  35.  —  A  New  England  dairy  farmstead.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go  out 
of  doors  to  reach  the  stable  in  cold,  windy  weather,  but  the  fire  risk  is 
greater  than  where  buildings  are  separated. 


Pens  or  box  stalls  for  small  calves  and  box  stalls  for  bulls  should 
be  placed  near  the  dairy  cattle,  unless  sanitary  conditions  forbid. 
Box  stalls  for  sick  stock  should  also  be  placed  near  in  order  that 
the  sick  animal  may  share  in  the  warmth  given  off  by  other 
animals  of  the  herd.  Contagious  diseases  seldom  occur  in  the 
stable  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  necessary  to  isolate  any  animal 
completely  from  the  herd. 

All  stable  equipment,  such  as  lanterns,  forks,  shovels,  brushes, 
currycombs,  etc.,  should  be   placed  near  the  door  of  the  stable 


114  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

and  should  have  a  definite  place  planned  for  them  so  that  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  look  all  over  the  barn  to  find  the  articles 
needed.  Pails,  milking  machines,  and  medical  equipment  will 
ordinarily  be  kept  in  the  milk  house.  Where  silage  is  fed,  some 
method  should  be  provided  for  carrying  it  from  the  silo  to  the 
individual  cows.  If  an  overhead  track  and  a  feed  carrier  are  not 
possible,  a  two  wheel  or  four  wheel  silage  cart  is  generally  very 
satisfactory.     The  same  cart  is  often  used  for  grain. 

1.  Make  a  detailed  floor  plan  and  side  elevation  of  your  project 

stable.  Show  the  ventilating  system  now  in  use.  Compute 
the  square  feet  of  window  per  cow. 

2.  Using  the  plans  made  in  the  preceding  problem,  plan  the  most 

efficient  method  of  ventilation.  Show  all  intake  and  out- 
take  flues;  indicate  the  direction  of  the  air  currents  and 
show  computations  used  to  determine  the  size  of  flues. 

3.  Make  the  floor  plan  and  side  elevation  of  an  ideal  stable 

planned  for  twenty  dairy  cows  and  the  usual  amount  of 
young  stock.  Show  all  dimensions  and  location  of  windows 
and  ventilating  flues. 

4.  Using  data  found  in  Chapters  V  and  IX  and  in  your  project 

record  book,  estimate  the  total  pounds  of  feed  carried  to 
your  project  herd  each  day  and  the  total  pounds  of  manure 
to  be  removed  from  the  stable. 

6.  Visit  several  well  planned  dairy  stables.  Study  the  ventilating 
system  of  each  and  make  a  drawing  showing  how  it  works. 
Compute  the  number  of  square  feet  of  window  per  cow. 

6.  Make  a  detailed  drawing  of  the  construction  of  an  efficient  wooden 

outlet  flue. 

7.  Make  a  cross  section  drawing  of  a  dairy  barn  showing  how  to  bring 

outtake  flues  together  at  the  peak  of  the  roof  and  how  to  join  them  to 
a  ventilator  on  the  roof  of  the  barn.  Show  the  location  of  the  track 
for  the  hayfork. 

8.  Design  a  method  of  hanging  a  tiro-sash  window  which  shall  be  so 

adjustable  as  to  aid  in  ventilating  the  stable. 


CHAPTER  IX 
SAVING  ALL  THE  FERTILITY  IN  THE  MANURE 

1.  Save  the  liquid  manure 

2.  Do  not  waste  manure  between  the  stable  and  the  field 

3.  Balance  the  crop  ration   by  adding   reenforcements  to  the 

manure 

4.  Where  manure  should  be  applied 

5.  Rate  of  application  of  manure 

6.  Value  of  manure  from  various  farm  animals 

7.  The  market  value  of  manure 

For  many  generations  it  has  been  recognized  that  a  live-stock 
farm  is  a  fertile  farm,  and  increases  in  fertility  year  by  year.  This 
is  true,  however,  only  when  the  full  value  of  the  manure  is  saved 
and  applied  to  the  crop  land.  It  has  been  estimated  by  agricul- 
tural authorities  that  one  half  of  the  fertiUzing  value  of  the  manure 
is  lost  on  the  average  farm.  The  dairyman  who  permits  this  is 
losing  possible  profits  just  as  surely  as  if  he  permitted  his  cows  to 
die  through  lack  of  feed  or  care. 

1.  —  Save  the  Liquid  Manure 

It  is  necessary  to  absorb  the  liquid  manure  in  some  way  in  order 
to  save  the  fertiUzing  elements.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
liquid  manure  is  absorbed  by  the  more  sohd  portion.  There  are 
many  absorbents  commonly  used  on  farms  which  are  effective. 
Perhaps  the  most  common  is  straw.  Ordinary  straw  from  oats, 
wheat,  barley,  or  other  grains  makes  a  very  good  bedding  for  dairy 
cows  and  absorbs  the  liquid  manure  very  well.  Its  absorptive 
powers  may  be  greatly  increased  by  running  it  through  a  cutting 
box  and  chopping  it  into  short  sections.  In  this  way  a  very  small 
supply  of  straw  may  be  made  to  last  through  an  entire  winter. 
Long,  coarse  straw  rots  rather  slowly.     By  using  it  as  an  absorbent, 

116 


116 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


decay  is  hastened  and  the  straw  itself  is  made  valuable  for  fertil- 
izing purposes  much  more  quickly  than  it  would  be  if  spread  on 
the  ground  when  dry. 

Sawdust  is  a  very  efficient  absorbent.  There  may  be  some  dan- 
ger of  making  soil  sour  by  using  too  large  quantities  of  sawdust 
in  the  manure ;  but  on  the  average  farm  where  a  field  is  manured 
only  once  or  twice  in  an  entire  crop  rotation,  there  is  little  danger 
of  this.  Shavings  are  also  efficient,  though  often  more  expensive 
than  sawdust.  Shavings  decay  much  more  slowly  than  sawdust, 
and  as  they  are  generally  used  in  larger  quantities  they  may  have 
an  injurious  effect  upon  the  soil  sooner  than  will  sawdust. 


Constituent  lost 


Organic  matter. . 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid. 
Potash   


Percentage  loss 

Protected 

Unprotected 

60 

69 

23 

40 

4 

16 

3 

36 

Fig.  36. — Losses  of  farm  manures  by  fermentation  alone  and  by  fermenta- 
tion and  leaching  combined. — From  Lyon's  "Soils  &  Fertilizers." 

Horse  manure  is  commonly  used  as  an  absorbent  of  the  liquid 
manure  in  the  dairy  barn,  as  horse  manure  is  dry  and  generally 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  straw  bedding.  In  some  regions 
boards  of  health  object  to  its  use  from  a  sanitary  standpoint.  It 
is  doubtful,  however,  if  horse  manure  when  used  carefully  in  the 
stable  has  any  injurious  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  milk  pro- 
duced. It  is  best  used  by  being  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  drop 
just  after  the  stables  are  cleaned.  If  spread  through  the  drop  in 
a  thin  layer,  it  is  in  position  to  absorb  liquids  to  its  fullest  capacity 
before  time  to  clean  the  stable  again. 

Spoiled  hay,  weeds,  grass,  hay  that  the  cattle  will  not  eat,  and 
various  other  crop  residues  are  often  used  as  absorbents.  They 
are  all  effective.  There  is  some  danger,  however,  of  spreading 
weed  seed  by  this  process,  if  weeds,  or  very  weedy  hay,  are  used 
in  the  stable. 


SAVING  FERTILITY  IN  MANURE  117 

Coal  ashes,  ground  limestone,  and  various  other  substances  are 
sometimes  used  as  absorbents.  Coal  ashes  are  capable  of  absorb- 
ing only  a  small  quantity  of  liquid.  Ground  limestone  is  still  less 
effective.  Both,  however,  help  to  keep  the  stable  dry  and  odor- 
less. The  use  of  ground  limestone  on  the  stable  floor  and  in  the 
drop  is  especially  advisable  from  the  standpoint  of  applying  ground 
limestone  to  the  land  economically  and  distributing  it  evenly. 

There  are  many  specialized  dairy  sections  where  no  grain  is 
raised,  and  consequently  no  straw  is  available  for  bedding.  In 
such  regions  many  cows  are  kept  throughout  the  winter  upon 
concrete  or  wooden  floors  with  no  bedding  under  them.     This  is 


Percentage  of  solid  and  liquid  parts  of  excrement 


1  Solid,  80  per  cent. . 
Liquid,  20  per  cent 
Entire  excreta 

I  Solid,  70  per  cent. . 
Liquid,  30  per  cent 
Entire  excreta 

!  Solid,  67  per  cent. . 
Liquid,  33  per  cent 
Entire  excreta 

!  Solid,  60  per  cent . . 
Liquid,  40  per  cent 
Entire  excreta 


Pounds  in  a  ton 


1500 
1800 
1560 

1700 
1840 
1720 

1200 
1700 
1360 

1600 
1940 
1740 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


6 

trace 

5 

4 

trace 
3 

10 

1 


10 


Fig.  37. — Pounds  of  water  and  plant-food  materials  in  one  ton  of  solid  excreta, 
in  one  ton  of  liquid  excreta,  and  in  one  ton  of  entire  excreta  of  several 
different  classes  of  animals. — From  Lyon's  "Soils  and  Fertilizers." 


uncomfortable  and  often  injurious  to  the  cow.  There  is  a  conse- 
quent loss  of  most  of  the  liquid  portion  of  the  manure.  If  you 
are  dairying  in  such  a  section  you  can  well  afford  to  spend  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  time  in  solving  the  question  of  how  to  save 


118 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 


the  liquid  manure.  The  horse  manure  should  certainly  be  used 
in  the  drop  under  such  circumstances.  In  addition  to  this,  saw- 
dust, weeds,  refuse  hay,  coal  ashes,  ground  hmestone,  chopped 
cornstalks,  and  any  other  available  absorptive  material  should 
be  used. 

The  Table  of  Fig.  37  from  Lyon's  "Soils  and  Fertihzers"  shows 
the  composition  of  the  manure  from  various  animals.  It  should 
be  noted  that  in  each  case  the  solid  matter  makes  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  manure.  It  should  be  noted  also,  however,  that  the 
liquid  manure  in  every  case  is  much  higher  in  nitrogen  and  potash 
content  than  is  the  solid  manure.  Nitrogen  and  potash  are  our 
most  expensive  fertilizing  elements.  It  is  very  poor  business  to 
waste  such  constituents  in  the  liquid  manure  from  your  cows  and 
then  purchase  nitrogen  and  potash  in  a  fertilizer  sack  from  your 
dealer. 


Fi(i.  38.  —  Hiiuliiifi  nuinun;  from  a  pit  in  summer  Willi  a  truftur. 


SAVING  FERTILITY   IN   MANURE 


119 


2. — Do  Not  Waste  Manure  between  the  Stable  and  the  Field 

Elimination  of  the  waste  of  manure  between  the  stable  and  the 
field  will  stop  one  of  the  big  leaks  in  dairy  farming.  Haul  the 
manure  from  the  stable  to  the  field,  and  spread  it  directly  from 
the  wagon  or  sleigh,  or  better  yet,  spread  it  with  a  manure  spreader. 
Never  place  it  in  small  heaps  to  be  spread  later.  Piling  in  small 
heaps  means  that  all  this  manure  must  be  handled  over  again  by 
a  man  who  spreads  it  with  a  fork  from  the  heap.  The  heaps  dry 
out  very  quickly,  bacterial  action  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  a 
large  percentage  of  the  fertilizing  elements  is  lost. 

There  are  some  disadvantages  in  hauling  the  manure  directly 
from  the  stable  to  the  field.  Meadows  which  overflow  during  the 
winter  can  not  be  manured  in  the  fall  or  winter  as  the  manure 
may  be  washed  away  and  lost  at  flood  time.  If  manure  is  spread 
on  steep  hillsides  when  the  ground  is  frozen,  a  considerable  loss 
may  result  from  washing.  During  a  long  continued  wet  spell  the 
ground  often  gets  so  soaked  that  meadows  would  be  very  badly 
cut  up  if  a  manure  spreader  or  a  manure  wagon  were  driven  across 


Fig.  39.  —  Cutting  ensilage  corn  with  a  tractor. 


120  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

them.  In  some  regions  it  is  nearly  impossible  to  spread  manure 
during  the  winter  on  account  of  deep,  heavy  snows.  In  such 
regions  when  manure  spreaders  can  not  be  used  manure  can  often 
be  spread  from  sleighs.  In  spreading  from  a  sleigh  small  sticks 
or  pieces  of  brush  should  be  used  to  mark  the  area  which  is  ma- 
nured each  day  so  that  in  case  of  a  snowstorm  there  will  be  no 
confusion  as  to  the  portion  previously  covered. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  objection  to  hauling  manure  directly  from 
the  stable  to  the  field  is  that  it  is  uneconomical  to  hitch  up  a  team 
simply  to  haul  one  load  of  manure  per  day.  If  your  farm  is  well 
organized,  well  diversified,  and  has  work  for  your  horses  every  day 
during  the  winter,  it  is  poor  economy  to  haul  the  manure  one  load 
at  a  time  for  every  day  of  the  winter  season.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, or  if  weather  conditions  make  it  impossible,  some  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  storing  the  manure  with  the  least  pos- 
sible amount  of  loss.  The  manure  should  never  be  stored  under 
the  eaves  where  it  is  exposed  to  rain,  or  in  any  place  where  water 
can  leach  through  it.  The  best  place  to  store  manure  is  in  a  pit 
or  in  a  covered  barnyard.  In  order  to  preserve  all  its  fertilizing 
constituents,  the  manure  in  storage  should  be  damp  and  well 
packed.  Loose,  dry  manure  quickly  becomes  fire-fanged  and  loses 
a  large  portion  of  its  nitrogen.  A  covered  barnyard  where  the 
manure  from  all  the  animals  may  be  mixed  and  trampled  by  stock, 
may  be  used  very  efficiently  as  a  means  of  conserving  the  fertil- 
izing elements.  Such  trampling,  however,  makes  pitching  out  the 
manure  in  the  spring  heavy  work.  The  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
in  a  course  of  experiments  lasting  over  a  period  of  fourteen  years, 
found  that  manure  spread  frcsh  from  the  stable  gave  an  average 
yield  of  thirty  per  cent  more  than  did  manure  which  had  been 
left  in  an  open  yard.  A  concrete  manure  pit  with  a  roof  over  it 
to  keep  out  the  rain  will  pay  for  itself  on  most  dairy  farms 
within  a  few  years.  In  such  a  pit  manure  may  be  stored  for  a 
week  or  for  several  months.  Directions  for  building  such  a  pit 
may  be  obtained  from  most  of  the  companies  which  manufacture 
Portland  cement. 


SAVING   FERTILITY   IN   MANURE  121 

3.  —  Balance  the  Crop  Ration  by  Adding  Re'enforcements  to  the 
Manure 

Lyon  states  that  an  ordinary  mixture  of  horse  and  cow  manure 
with  an  average  quantity  of  straw  htter  will  have  a  composition 
such  that  20  tons  of  it  is  equivalent  to  1  ton  of  a  5-1-6  fertilizer; 
that  is,  a  fertilizer  containing  5  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  1  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  6  per  cent  of  potash.  This  analysis  is  very 
high  in  nitrogen  and  very  low  in  available  phosphoric  acid. 

In  order  to  make  a  balanced  plant  food  some  phosphorus  carrier 
should  be  added  to  the  manure.  In  the  Eastern  states  and  all 
regions  where  acid  phosphate  is  most  commonly  used  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, this  should  be  added  at  the  rate  of  50  pounds  to  each  ton 
of  manure.  In  Western  states  where  raw  rock  phosphate  is  com- 
monly used  as  a  fertilizer  this  may  be  used  as  a  reenforcement  at 
the  rate  of  100  pounds  to  each  ton  of  manure. 

Other  chemicals  which  may  be  used  as  a  reenforcement  are  gyp- 
sum, and  kainite.  Gypsum  acts  upon  the  ammonia  changing  it 
to  ammonium  sulphate,  a  stable  compound.  It  should  be  applied 
at  the  rate  of  100  pomids  to  each  ton  of  manure.  Gypsum  con- 
tains no  phosphoric  acid  and  so  has  no  balancing  effect.  Acid 
phosphate  as  a  result  of  its  method  of  manufacture  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  gypsum  and  so  helps  to  save  the  ammonia. 
Kainite  also  reacts  with  the  ammonia  and  increases  the  potash  in 
the  manure.  It  is  caustic  and  can  not  be  used  where  it  will  come 
in  contact  with  the  feet  of  anima's.  It  contains  no  phosphorus 
and  does  not  in  any  way  tend  to  balance  the  manure. 

Before  adding  any  reenforcement  to  the  manure  make  every 
possible  provision  for  saving  all  the  fertility  and  applying  it  to  the 
field.  All  these  reenforcements  are  expensive.  If  manure  is  al- 
lowed to  leach  in  the  rain  or  to  be  wasted  in  any  other  way  after 
reinforcements  are  applied,  money  already  invested  in  fertility  is 
simply  thrown  away. 

1.  What  results  did  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  obtain  from 
using  various  reenforcements  with  stable  manure?  Which 
reenforcements  were  most  valuable?     LFB  :  Gil. 


122  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

4.  —  Where  Manure  Should  Be  Applied 

Manure  should  be  applied  to  crops  which  produce  the  greatest 
value  per  acre,  as  a  percentage  gain  in  their  production  means 
a  larger  gain  in  dollars  and  cents  than  an  equal  percentage  gain 
in  a  crop  of  low  value.  This  means  that  manure  should  be  ordi- 
narily applied  to  the  cash  crops  or  to  the  cultivated  crops  of  the 
farm.  Some  crops  are  especially  benefited  by  manure.  Com  is 
a  rank  feeder  and  seems  to  be  capable  of  feeding  upon  manure 
when  only  partly  decayed.  Many  other  crops  require  that  the 
manure  be  completely  decayed  before  its  elements  can  be  used 
for  their  growth.  Manure  applied  to  the  soil  makes  it  loose, 
friable,  and  especially  adapted  to  potato  culture.  After  the  cash 
crops  and  the  other  most  valuable  crops  have  been  manured, 
any  surplus  should  be  applied  to  the  grasslands  or  meadows. 
Many  agricultural  writers  advise  that  all  manure  should  be 
applied  to  the  meadows,  and  a  few  farmers  make  a  practice  of 
applying  all  the  manure  to  them.  Most  farmers,  however, 
manure  their  cultivated  or  cash  crops  first,  and  then  use  any  sur- 
plus upon  new  seeding.  An  application  of  manure  to  hay  crops  in- 
creases the  growth  of  both  the  tops  and  the  roots.  On  hay  land 
manure  thus  leaves  a  greater  amount  of  stubble,  and  a  greater 
number  of  roots  in  the  soil,  and  so  increases  the  organic  content 
at  t*he  time  when  the  land  is  again  plowed.  Coarse,  strawy 
manure  should  not  be  applied  to  lands  which  are  to  be  mowed 
in  the  following  year,  as  the  trash  left  will  be  raked  up  with  the 
hay. 

5.  —  Rate  of  Application  of  Manure 

The  Ohio  Experiment  Station  has  conducted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments with  different  rates  of  application  of  manure.  A  study  of 
the  results  seems  to  indicate  that  the  heaviest  applications  do  not 
return  to  the  farmer  as  great  a  value  for  each  ton  of  manure 
as  do  more  moderate  applications.  Under  ordinary  farm  con- 
ditions an  application  of  from  eight  to  twelve  tons  of  manure 
per  acre,   applied  as  thin  as  possible,   is  more  profitable  than 


SAVING  FERTILITY  IN   MANURE  123 

heavier  applications  applied  less  often.  A  thin  application,  how- 
ever, is  rather  difficult  to  make  by  hand.  It  is  generally  necessary 
to  use  a  manure  spreader  to  distribute  evenly  an  application  of 
less  than  twenty  tons  per  acre.  The  dairyman  who  has  so  many 
animals  that  he  can  manure  his  land  heavily  is  in  danger  of  not 
receiving  as  great  a  crop  value  for  each  ton  of  manure  as  is  the 
dairyman  who  has  a  moderate-sized  herd,  well  proportioned  to  his 
number  of  crop  acres.  This  is  another  important  reason  for  bal- 
ance in  the  dairy  farm.  The  balance  between  crop  acres  and  ani- 
mal units  should  be  such  that  the  manure  produced  can  be  profit- 
ably used. 

One  of  the  places  where  a  dairyman  can  apply  a  small  amomit 
of  manure  most  profitably  each  year  is  upon  the  pasture  land. 
In  planning  the  cropping  system  and  the  use  of  fertilizers  and 
manures,  therefore,  the  pasture  lands  should  always  be  considered. 
This  is  discussed  more  fully  in  Chapter  XXIII. 

6.  —  Value  of  Manure  from  Various  Farm  Animals 

The  table,  Fig.  40,  taken  from  Lyon's  "Soils  and  Fertilizers," 
gives  the  comparative  value  of  the  manure  from  various  animals, 
based  on  pre-war  prices,  i.e.  nitrogen  at  ten  cents  a  pound,  phos- 
phoric acid  at  two  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  and  potash  at 
four  cents.  The  amounts  of  manure  produced  by  various  farm 
animals  in  pounds  per  day,  and  in  tons  per  year,  are  given  in  the 
table  of  Fig.  41.  The  division  of  this  amount  between  liquid  and 
solid  manure  is  indicated  in  the  table  of  Fig.  37. 


Swine  excreta .  . 

Cow  excreta 

Horse  excreta .  . 
Sheep  excreta . . 
Poultry  excreta. 


Value  per  ton 


$1.50 
1.64 
1.97 

2.87 
4  80 


Fig.  40. — Value  of  excreta  produced  by  several  farm  animals. 


124 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Most  farm  animals  are  not  in  the  stable  throughout  the  year. 
Dairy  cows  are  generally  in  the  stable  only  during  the  winter 
season  of  from  five  to  seven  months.  A  very  good  general  rule 
to  follow  in  computing  the  amoiint  of  manure  produced  is  that  a 
one  thousand  pound  animal  will  produce  practically  one  ton  of 
manure  per  month  for  each  month  that  it  is  in  the  stable.  While 
on  pasture  the  production  is  the  same  of  course,  but  the  manure 
is  left  on  the  pasture. 


Animal 

Pounds  per 

day 

Tons  per  year 

Horse 

50 

9.1 

Cow 

70 

12.7 

Steer 

40 

7.3 

Swine 

85 

15.5 

Sheep 

34 

6.2 

Fig.  41. — Excreta  from  variou.s  farm  animals  to  the  one  thousand  pounds 
live  weight. 


7.  —  The  Market  Value  of  Manure 

The  table  of  Fig.  40  indicates  the  value  of  manure  based  upon 
its  average  analysis  and  upon  the  commercial  value  of  the  various 
fertilizing  elements.  Manure,  however,  has  a  market  value  in 
various  sections  of  the  country  which  is  not  dependent  upon 
fertilizing  elements.  This  value  varies  in  accordance  with  the 
law  of  supply  and  demand.  In  trucking  regions  where  few  animals 
are  kept  and  a  great  deal  of  manure  is  needed,  manure  has  a  high 
value,  and  is  shipped  in  at  considerable  cost.  In  dairy  regions 
where  large  numbers  of  animals  are  kept,  manure  has  a  much 
lower  value.  When  sold  at  all,  manure  is  commonly  valued  at 
$1.00  to  SI. 50  per  ton  in  dairy  regions,  and  from  $4.00  to  $6.00 
per  ton  in  trucking  regions.  The  chemical  analysis  of  a  manure 
does  not  indicate  its  true  commercial  value.  One  of  its  greatest 
values  is  not  computed  commercially.  This  is  its  value  as  humus 
making  material.  Every  ton  of  manure  has  a  considerable  amount 
of  such  value,  depending  of  course  upon  the  needs  of  the  soil  to 


SAVING  FERTILITY  IN   MANURE  125 

which  it  is  apphed.  Humus  is  particularly  valuable  in  light  sandy 
soils  to  bind  them  together,  to  make  them  less  Icachy,  and  to 
increase  their  absorptive  powers.  It  is  also  especially  valuable 
in  heavy  clay  soils  to  loosen  them  up,  to  make  them  more  porous 
and  to  increase  their  absorptive  powers.  Manure  also  improves 
any  soil  because  it  introduces  a  large  number  of  bacteria  and 
increases  bacterial  activity,  and  because  bacterial  activity  brings 
plant  nutrients  into  available  forms. 

1.  Using  tables  given  in  this  chapter  or  in  reference  LFB : 

a.  Estimate  the  total  number  of  pounds  of  manure,  both 

liquid  and  solid,  to  be  produced  by  your  project  herd 
during  the  year. 

b.  Estimate  the  percentage  of  the  above  totals  which  will 

be  available  for  spreading  on  the  fields. 

c.  Compute  the  amount  of  reenforcement  needed. 

2.  Visit  several  of  the  better  farmers  in  your  neighborhood  and 

find  out  where  they  apply  manure  and  in  what  quantities 
for  each  crop. 

3.  Where  will  you  use  the  manure  produced  and  in  what  amounts 

per  acre? 

4.  How  much  money  will  you  credit  your  herd  with  for  manure 

produced  this  year? 

6.  What  is  the  most  economical  and  efficient  absorbent  to  use  on 
your  farm? 

6.  Draw  plans  for  a  manure  pit  for  a  herd  of  twenty  cows,  showing 

all  dimensions,  location  in  relation  to  the  dairy  stable,  and 
method  of  getting  the  manure  into  and  out  of  the  pit. 

7.  Make  a  complete  bill  of  materials  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the 

manure  pit.  Compute  the  investment  per  ton  of  manure 
stored.  Compute  the  annual  cost  of  storage  per  ton  of 
manure. 


126  DAIRY  FARIVIING  PROJECTS 

8.  What  is  fire-fanging  and  what  is  the  cause  of  it?     LFB  :  596. 

9.    Using  tables  given  in  this  chapter  or  in  reference  LFB: 

a.  Estimate  the  total  nuviber  of  pounds  each  of  nitrogen,  phos- 

phorus, and  potash  in  the  solid  manure  produced  by  your 
project  herd  in  one  year. 

b.  Do  the  same  for  the  liquid  manure. 

c.  To  how  many  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate,  and 

muriate  of  potash  would  these  be  equal? 


CHAPTER  X 
PRODUCING  CLEAN  MILK 

1.  Produce  sanitary  milk 

(1)  Provide  clean  and  healthy  milkers 

(2)  Be  clean  in  methods  of  milking 

(3)  Clean  the  cows  before  milking 

(4)  Use  milk  from  healthy  cows  only 

(5)  Keep  barn  and  surroundings  in  sanitary  condition 

(6)  Use  clean  utensils 

(7)  Supply  wholesome  food  and  pure  water 

(8)  Use  plenty  of  clean  bedding 

(9)  Do  not  raise  a  dust  before  milking 
(10)    Cool  milk  promptly  and  thoroughly 

2.  Produce  certified  milk  when  profitable 

3.  Study  experimental  data  on  production  of  clean  milk 

The  production  of  clean  milk  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lems of  the  dairyman.  The  fact  that  milk  is  used  as  a  human 
food,  and  is  used  very  largely  as  a  food  for  infants,  places  upon 
the  dairyman  a  moral  obligation  to  make  as  pure  and  wholesome 
a  product  as  can  possibly  be  made.  Every  year  city  and  state 
departments  of  health  spend  a  large  amount  of  time  in  attempt- 
ing to  improve  the  milk  supply.  Unfortunately,  many  of  the 
plans  devised  by  such  bodies  in  the  past  have  been  very  costly 
and  extremely  impractical.  Experimental  data  of  the  last  few 
years  have  demonstrated  time  after  time  that  expensive  equip- 
ment and  palatial  barns  are  not  necessary  in  order  to  produce 
pure  and  wholesome  milk. 

Not  only  is  the  dairjanan  morally  obUgated  to  produce  as 
sanitary  milk  as  possible,  but  from  the  business  standpoint  it 

127 


128 


DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 


will  often  pay  him  well  to  produce  a  better  grade  of  milk.  Many 
milk  distributors  now  pay  a  premium  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  cents  per  hundredweight  for  milk  produced  under  sanitary 
conditions  and  with  a  low  bacterial  content.  The  dairyman  who 
is  retailing  milk  can  often  sell  his  milk  at  a  premium  if  it  is  known 
to  be  sanitary.  In  every  region  there  is  an  opportunity  for  a 
number  of  dairymen  to  create  for  themselves  a  special  market 
for  sanitary  milk  at  high  class  hotels,  restaurants,  ice  cream  fac- 
tories, soda  fountains,  and  other  places.  Such  a  market  will 
often  pay  a  much  better  price  than  the  general  market  of  the 
region.  If  this  extra  price  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  cost, 
it  leaves  a  fair  margin  of  profit  and  affords  an  incentive  to  better 
methods.  To  a  specialized  dairyman  who  has  suitable  stables 
and  equipment  and  wishes  to  spend  the  extra  time  and  money 
required,  the  production  of  certified  milk  presents  an  interesting, 
and  under  the  proper  conditions,  a  profitable  field. 


Card 

Cows 

Stables 

Milk  house 

UtensUs 

Handling 
milk 

Total 

Federal  Card 

16 

34 

8 

26 

16 

100  00 

N.  Y.  Board  of  Health 

8 

15 

7 

28 

42 

100  00 

New  Hampshire 

4 

10 

4 

42 

40 

100.00 

Fig.  42. — Weights  given  to  various  factors  on  score  cards  for  dairj'  stables. 
Vermont  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  28 


1.  —  Produce  Sanitary  Milk 

To  produce  sanitary  milk  the  following  factors  are  essential: 
clean  and  healthy  milkers,  clean  methods  of  milking,  prompt  and 
thorough  cooling,  clean  cows,  healthy  cows,  sanitary  barn  and 
surroundings,  clean  utensils,  wholesome  food  and  pure  water, 
clean  bedding,  and  stable  air  free  from  dust. 

(1)  Provide  clean  and  healthy  milkers.  —  No  man  should  be 
allowed  to  milk  cows  if  he  has  any  communicable  disease.  A 
milker  who  is  apparently  in  ill  health  or  has  sores  upon  his  skin 


PRODUCING   CLEAN   xMILK  129 

or  whose  face  and  hands  are  broken  out  should  not  be  allowed 
to  work  around  milk.  Warm  milk  is  an  ideal  place  for  all  sorts 
of  bacteria  to  grow,  and  there  are  many  cases  on  record  where 
serious  epidemics  have  resulted  from  diseased  milkers. 

Milkers  should  not  wear,  while  milking,  the  clothes  in  which 
they  have  done  field  work  or  other  farm  work.  Each  milker  should 
be  provided  with  a  clean  milking  suit,  preferably  white,  which 
covers  up  all  of  his  other  clothing.  All  dairy  supply  houses  now 
carry  these  in  stock,  and  sell  them  at  a  very  reasonable  price. 
Milkers  should  always  wash  their  hands  before  milking. 

(2)  Be  clean  in  methods  of  milking.  —  Never  milk  with  wet 
hands.  Milking  with  wet  hands  simply  washes  the  dirt  from  the 
outside  of  the  udder  into  the  pail  and  contaminates  the  milk 
with  enormous  quantities  of  bacteria,  in  proportion  to  the  clean- 
Uness  or  uncleanliness  of  the  cow's  udder  and  of  the  milker's 
hands.  There  is  no  excuse  for  wet  milking.  Dry-handed  milking 
is  really  easier  and  quicker.  The  dair^niian  who  has  learned  to 
milk  with  wet  hands  should  break  liimself  of  the  habit  and  learn 
to  milk  dry  handed. 

The  first  milk  which  conies  from  each  teat  is  known  as  foremilk 
and  contains  many  thousands  of  bacteria.  In  order  to  produce 
milk  with  a  low  bacterial  count,  the  first  stream  or  two  from  each 
teat  should  be  rejected, 

(3)  Clean  the  cows  before  milking.  —  Much  of  the  dirt  which 
goes  into  milk  comes  from  the  under  side  of  the  cow's  body,  or 
from  the  large  hairs  on  the  cow's  udder  during  the  process  of  milk- 
ing. Milk  is  strained  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  larger  par- 
ticles of  such  dirt.  In  removing  the  dirt  by  straining,  however,  we 
must  remember  that  we  are  not  removing  the  bacteria.  It  is  im- 
portant to  prevent  this  dirt  from  getting  into  the  pail  and  to  do 
this,  the  under  side  of  the  cow's  body  and  the  cow's  udder  should 
be  freed  from  all  these  loose  particles  just  before  milking.  The 
hairs  on  the  udder  often  hold  a  large  amount  of  dirt,  containing 
many  kinds  of  bacteria.  Wiping  with  a  damp  cloth  just  previous 
to  milking  prevents  a  large  amount  of  contamination.  One  man 
with  a  pail  of  water  and  a  damp  cloth  can  wipe  off  the  udders 


130  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

of  a  large  herd  of  cows  in  a  few  minutes.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
obtain  clean  water  for  each  cow.  A  study  of  the  farms  which  pro- 
duce certified  milk  in  New  York  State  showed  that,  on  the  aver- 
age, seven  and  one  half  cows  were  washed  with  one  pail  of  water. 
If  the  hind  legs  and  flanks  of  the  cow  are  kept  clipped  during 
the  winter  season,  it  will  greatly  aid  in  keeping  the  cow  clean. 
Sometime  previous  to  milking,  the  cow  should  be  brushed  and 
cleaned,  but  this  should  not  be  done  immediately  before  milking, 
as  it  will  leave  the  stable  air  full  of  dust  which  will  get  into 
the  milk. 

(4)  Use  milk  from  healthy  cows  only.  —  Milk  from  a  diseased 
or  unhealthy  cow  is  not  fit  for  human  consumption.  No  cow 
which  is  plainly  in  an  unhealthy  condition  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  herd.  If  the  condition  is  only  temporary,  and  the 
cow  is  expected  to  recover,  she  should  be  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd  and  her  milk  discarded  until  she  becomes  healthy. 
Tubercular  cows  should  be  discarded.  The  best  way  of  deter- 
mining which  cows  are  tubercular  is  by  using  the  tuberculin  test. 
A  physical  examination,  however,  by  a  trained  veterinarian  will 
reveal  those  cows  which  are  in  an  advanced  stage  of  tuberculosis. 
If  cows  have  garget  or  other  udder  trouble,  the  milk  should  not 
be  sold  for  food.  A  cow  sometimes  for  a  few  days  gives  bloody 
milk  or  thick  stringy  milk.  This  may  be  due  to  a  temporary 
condition  or  if  it  persists  it  may  be  due  to  a  permanent  injury 
of  the  udder.  As  long  as  the  condition  remains,  the  milk  should 
not  be  used  for  food. 

(5)  Keep  bam  and  surroundings  in  sanitary  condition.  —  A 
well  lighted,  well  ventilated  stable  is  a  great  aid  in  the  production 
of  sanitary  milk.  Sunlight  is  our  best  and  cheapest  disinfectant. 
An  abundance  of  sunlight,  with  good  ventilation,  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  making  the  stable  sanitary.  In  order  that  the  stable 
may  be  kept  clean  easily,  all  floors  and  gutters  should  be  made 
of  concrete.  The  walls  should  be  smooth  and  of  such  construction 
that  little  dust  can  find  place  for  lodgment.  They  should  be  fre- 
quently whitewashed.  Whitewash  is  a  dismfectant,  and  at  the 
same  time  gives  the  bam  a  sanitary  appearance. 


PRODUCING  CLEAN  MILK  131 

The  barnyard  or  exercising  yard  for  the  cows  should  be  dry 
and  well  drained.  If  the  yard  is  nuiddy,  the  cows  cannot  be  kept 
clean.  If  the  cows  must  wade  through  soft  manure  in  passing 
to  and  from  the  stable,  they  can  not  be  kept  sufficiently  clean 
to  produce  sanitary  milk. 

(6)  Use  clean  utensils.  —  The  Geneva  Experiment  Station 
found  that  one  half  of  the  bacteria  collected  in  the  milking  proc- 
ess can  be  excluded  by  the  use  of  a  covered  pail.  The  pail  used 
in  their  experiments  was  about  twelve  inches  high  and  had  an 
elliptical  opening  in  the  top  about  seven  by  five  inches.  With 
this  pail  after  a  little  practice  milking  was  as  easy  as  with  the 
old-fashioned,  wide  top  kind.  At  the  same  time,  it  prevented  a 
large  proportion  of  the  dirt  which  was  brushed  off  the  cow's 
body  during  the  milking  process  from  falling  into  the  pail. 

Milk  pails,  milk  cans,  and  all  other  containers  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  and  sterilized  between  milkings.  Pails  which  are 
carelessly  washed  in  warm  water  and  left  from  one  milking  to 
another  often  become  very  efficient  incubators  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria.  The  old  fashioned  way  of  washing  the  pail,  then  rinsing 
in  very  cold  well  water,  and  turning  it  up  in  the  sunlight  to  dry 
on  the  well  platform,  was  a  fairly  efficient  and  sanitary  method, 
unless  dust  blew  into  the  pail  durmg  the  drying  process. 

(7)  Supply  wholesome  food  and  pure  water.  —  The  cow  should 
never  be  fed  upon  partly  decayed  vegetable  matter  such  as 
spoiled  ensilage,  musty  or  spoiled  hay,  half-rotten  potatoes, 
apples,  or  cabbage  refuse.  Neither  should  such  half-spoiled 
materials  be  allowed  to  lie  around  the  stable  in  heaps  and  con- 
taminate the  stable  air.  Milk  absorbs  odors  so  readily  that  any 
unsanitary  condition  in  the  stable  durmg  the  milking  process 
may  give  a  disagreeable  taste  and  odor  to  the  milk.  Many  un- 
sanitary or  strong  smelling  foods  may  transfer  their  odors  to  the 
the  milk  through  the  cow.  If  grain  is  wet  before  feeding,  or  if 
the  mangers  are  flooded  to  water  the  cows,  especial  care  should 
be  taken  that  quantities  of  sour,  foul-smelling  feed  do  not  collect 
in  the  manger. 

The  cow  should  at  all  times  be  supplied  with  an  abundance  of 


132  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

pure  water.  Impure  water,  as  well  as  bad  air,  may  affect  the  6dor 
and  taste  of  the  milk.  From  an  economical  standpoint,  also,  im- 
pure water  will  result  in  a  smaller  consumption  of  water  and  in 
a  consequent  shrinkage  in  milk  production. 

(8)  Use  plenty  of  clean  bedding.  —  If  cows  are  not  bedded 
well  their  flanks  will  be  constantly  caked  with  manure  so  that 
it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  brush  or  wash  them  clean.  Saw- 
dust, shavings,  and  straw  make  the  most  sanitary  beddings. 
Shavings  and  sawdust  are  less  dusty  than  straw,  but  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  most  sanitary  milk  should  not  be  produced  in 
stables  where  straw  bedding  is  used,  if  the  bedding  is  not  shaken 
up  or  put  in  place  just  previous  to  milking. 

(9)  Do  not  raise  a  dust  before  milking.  —  At  milking  time 
the  stable  air  should  be  free  of  dust.  If  the  air  is  full  of  dust,  it 
may  get  into  the  milk.  The  hay  or  dry  roughage  should  be  fed 
after  milking  instead  of  before  milking.  The  stable  should  never 
be  cleaned,  nor  the  cows  bedded,  nor  the  floor  swept  just  previous 
to  milking.   This  work  should  be  done  at  least  half  an  hour  before. 

(10)  Cool  the  milk  promptly  and  thoroughly.  —  When  the 
milk  comes  from  the  cow  it  is  approximately  at  body  temperature 
and  is  one  of  the  finest  possible  mediums  for  the  growth  of  bacteria. 
Many  thousands  of  bacteria  are  present  under  the  best  of  con- 
ditions. If  the  milk  remains  at  this  temperature  any  length  of 
time  an  enormous  bacterial  growth  takes  place.  For  this  reason, 
it  should  be  cooled  promptly  and  thoroughly.  This  may  be  done 
by  straining  the  milk,  as  soon  as  drawn,  into  a  can  set  in  cold 
water,  or  by  running  it  immediately  over  a  milk  cooler  containing 
ice  water.  If  it  is  run  over  an  open  cooler,  care  should  be  taken 
that  dust  can  not  blow  into  it  during  the  cooling  process,  or  ad- 
ditional contamination  may  take  place. 

2.  —  Produce  Certified  Milk  When  Profitable 

The  term  certified  milk  is  used  to  indicate  market  milk  that  is 
the  cleanest  and  most  wholesome  that  can  be  produced  under 
conditions  imposed  by  medical  milk  commissions.    Certified  milk 


PRODUCING  CLEAN  MILK 


133 


must  be  free  from  disease  germs,  and  must  be  produced  from  tuber- 
culin tested  herds.  It  must  have  a  certain  known  composition 
and  must  not  exceed  a  certain  minimum  number  of  bacteria  per 
cubic  centimeter.  Certified  milk  generally  brings  the  producer 
about  twice  the  price  of  ordinary  milk.  Under  the  conditions 
required,  however,  the  production  of  certified  milk  is  very  ex- 
pensive. Some  dairymen  who  are  able  to  meet  these  conditions 
in  a  practical  and  economical  manner  have  made  very  satisfactory 
profits  from  the  business. 


Source  of  bacteria 

Number  of  bacteria 
per  cc.  of  milk 

Total  number  of 
bacteria 

Sources  other  than  utensils 

3  pails 

1  strainer 

1  clarifier  tank 

5,000 

54,635 

7,315 

8,038 

141,340 

50,900 

83,246 

250,000,000 
2,731,750,000 
365,750,000 
401,900,000 
7,067,000,000 
2,545,000,000 
4,162,300,000 

1  clarifier 

1  cooler 

1  bottle-filler  tank 

Total 

350,000 
345,000 

17,523,700,000 
17,273,700,000 

Fig.  43. — Average  number  of  bacteria  added  to  fifty  liters  of  milk  by  the 
various  unsteamed  utensils  in  which  it  was  handled:  Dairy  A. — Illinois 
Bulletin  No.  204. 


In  1910  a  survey  was  made  of  the  producers  of  certified  milk 
in  New  York  State.  The  results  of  this  survey  give  us  some 
very  usable  data  on  the  production  of  certified  milk.  Each  pro- 
ducer was  asked  the  question,  "What  do  you  consider  the  most 
in  need  of  thought  and  attention  in  the  production  of  certified 
milk?"  The  largest  number  of  the  answers  to  this  question  gave 
the  opinion  that  a  clean,  careful  milker  was  the  most  important 
factor  in  the  production  of  certified  milk.  The  next  important 
factor  was  thought  to  be  a  healthy  cow,  and  a  clean  cow.  Clean 
sterilized  utensils  came  next  in  importance.  To  obtain  a  clean 
cow  the  majority  of  these  producers  brush  the  whole  body  of 
the  cow  before  milking.     They  wash  seven  and  one-half  cows 


134  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

with  one  pail  of  water  on  the  average;  the  number  varies,  how- 
ever, from  twenty-four  cows  to  two  cows  per  pail  of  water. 

3.  —  Study  Experimental  Data  on  the 
Production  of  Clean  Milk 

Bulletin  No.  42  of  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment  Station  gives 
the  following  experimental  conclusions  as  the  result  of  a  series 
of  experiments. 

1.  When  the  cows  were  milked  before  feeding,  the  number  of  bacteria  per 
CO.  was  1233;  when  milked  immediately  after  feeding,  the  number  of  bacteria 
was  3656,  or  three  times  as  great. 

2.  When  the  udder  and  flanks  of  the  cow  were  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth, 
the  number  of  bacteria  per  cc.  was  716.  When  not  wiped,  the  number  was 
7058,  or  ten  times  as  great. 

3.  When  the  cows  were  not  brushed  just  before  milking  the  number  of 
bacteria  per  cc.  was  1207;  when  brushed  just  before  milking  the  number  was 
2286,  or  nearly  twice  as  great. 

4.  When  students  who  had  studied  the  production  of  clean  milk  did  the 
milking,  the  number  of  bacteria  per  cc.  was  914;  when  milking  was  done  by 
regular  unskilled  milkers,  the  number  of  bacteria  was  2846,  or  three  times 
as  great. 

Wiping  or  washing  the  udders  before  milking  not  only  very 
materially  reduces  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk,  but  also 
lessens  the  amount  of  dirt  to  a  very  large  extent.  Fraser  has  shown 
that  the  average  weight  of  dirt  which  falls  from  muddy  udders 
during  milking  is  ninety  times  as  great  as  that  which  falls  from 
the  same  udder  after  washing,  and  when  the  udder  is  simply 
soiled,  it  is  eighteen  times  as  great. 

1.  What  were  the  results  obtained  by  Eckles  as  to  bacterial  con- 

tent and  age  at  first  souring  for  milk  kept  at  different  tem- 
peratures?    EW  :  179. 

2.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  operations  in  your  dairy  stable  in 

the  winter,  including  all  milking,  feeding,  and  removal  of 
manure ;  and  arrange  these  in  the  order  which  will  give  you 
the  most  efficient  conditions  for  profitable  and  sanitary  pro- 
duction. 


PRODUCING  CLEAN  MILK  135 

3.  What  are  bacteria;  how  large  are  they  and  how  do  they  repro- 

duce?    M  :  146. 

4.  Give  some  instances  where  bacteria  are  harmful  and  some 

where  they  are  helpful.     M  :  147. 

5.  Describe  in  full  the  process  of  lactic  fermentation.     M  :  148. 

6.  Describe  in  full  the  process  of  curdling  and  digesting  fermentation. 

M  :  149. 

7.  Describe  in  full  the  process  of  butyric  fermentation.     M  :  150-151. 

8.  What  are  abnormal  fermentations?     What  is  their  causef    Describe 

some  of  the  more  common  forms.     M  :  151-154. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SELECTING  REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO  DAIRY  FARMING 

1.  Dairy  farming  requires  a  cool  climate 

2.  Dairying  depends  upon  good  grass  land 

3.  Dairy  regions  are  generally  regions  with  rugged   topog- 

raphy 

4.  Competing  types  of  farming  may  prevent  the  develop- 

ment of  dairying 

5.  Dairying  has  developed  best  among  people  who   under- 

stand dairy  cattle 

6.  Transportation  determines  the  dairy  product  which  can 

be  sold  with  profit 

7.  Adaptation  of  dairying  to  new  and  undeveloped  regions 


Fig.  44.  —  Vermont  hillsides  best  adapted  to  grass  production  in  pasture  and 
meadow.  This  with  the  nearness  to  *he  Boston  milk  market  makes 
dairying  the  chief  business. 

136 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO  DAIRY  FARMING  137 

Dairy  farming  develops  in  particular  regions  because  those 
regions  are  especially  adapted  to  dairying.  In  starting  your 
dairy  project  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  what  factors  make  a 
region  adapted  to  this  industry.  A  knowledge  of  these  factors 
will  help  you  in  choosing  a  farm  even  within  a  suitable  region, 
and  in  placing  a  proper  valuation  upon  it.  In  case  no  problem 
of  purchasmg  is  involved,  a  knowledge  of  the  factors  which 
make  a  region  suitable,  or  the  reverse,  should  help  you  to  under- 
stand to  just  what  extent  your  particular  farm  is  adapted  to 
dairying  and  to  organize  your  business  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
a  proper  balance  between  dairying  and  other  desirable  farm 
enterprises. 

1.  —  Dairy  Farming  Requires  a  Cool  Climate 

Profitable  dairy  farming  has  developed  m  the  cooler  regions  of 
the  temperate  zones.  The  United  States  is  no  exception  to  this 
rule.  That  this  is  true  is  shown  by  the  map  in  Fig.  45,  on  which 
are  indicated  the  regions  where  dairying  is  developed  most  ex- 
tensively in  this  country.  All  of  these  regions  have  from  six  to 
seven  months  of  winter,  and  only  one  hundred  and  twenty  to 
one  hundred  and  eighty  daj'^s  of  crop-growing  weather  between 
killing  frosts.  The  successful  production  of  dairy  products  and 
of  dair}'^  cattle  seems  to  demand  a  cool  climate.  Our  milk-pro- 
ducing cattle  have  never  thrived  so  well  in  the  warmer  as  in  the 
cooler  sections  of  the  country. 

Dairying  has  developed  in  regions  where  there  is  a  liberal 
amount  of  rainfall.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  are  the  irrigated 
regions  where  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  is  furnished  artificially. 
Dairying  is  never  found  as  an  important  industry  in  dry-farming 
or  semiarid  regions.  Dairymen  are  agreed  that  one  of  the  primary 
requisites  for  a  good  dairy  country  is  that  there  must  be  an 
abundance  of  pure,  fresh,  cold  water. 

This  is  necessary  not  only  for  the  health  of  the  cow  but  for  the 
successful  production  and  preservation  of  milk  and  dairy  products. 
In  cool  regions  it  is  much  easier  to  secure  a  uniformly  high  quality 
of  milk,  butter,  or  cheese.    Nearly  all  the  cheese  factories  of  the 


138 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO  DAIRY  FARMING  139 

United  States  are  located  where  the  average  growing  season  is 
of  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  days;  and  there  are  very 
few  cheese  factories  in  the  United  States  in  regions  which  have 
a  mean  summer  temperature  during  June,  July,  and  August  of 
more  than  seventy  degrees. 

2.  —  Dairying  Depends  upon  Good  Grass  Land 

All  of  our  important  dairy  enterprises  have  also  developed  in 
regions  which  produce  grass  and  pasture  bountifully.  Good  grass 
or  pasture  land  depends  upon  two  factors.  The  soil  should  be  rich 
and  heavy  in  texture,  i.e.  of  a  loam,  silt  loam,  clay  loam,  or  clay; 
and  the  climate  should  be  cool  and  moist.  We  have  already  seen 
that  dairying  develops  best  in  a  region  of  cool,  moist  climate. 
It  is  such  a  climate  that  produces  the  best  pasture  and  hay 
crops.  Most  of  northeastern  United  States  is  naturally  hay  and 
grass  land.  Not  only  is  the  climate  cold  and  moist  enough  to  be 
adapted  to  hay  crops,  but  the  soil  is  generally  heavy  enough  to 
produce  excellent  crops  and  to  make  it  possible  to  keep  a  field 
in  g'od  without  reseeding  for  from  three  to  ten  years.  The  very 
light,  sandy  areas  which  are  found  in  this  region  are  never  im- 
portant dairy  regions,  because  they  are  not  grass  lands. 

3.  —  Dairy  Regions  Are  Generally  Regions  with 
Rugged  Topography 

The  typical  dairy  region  is  hilly  or  mountainous.  This  is  not 
because  hills  and  mountains  are  necessarily  adapted  to  dairying. 
Level  land  may  be  much  more  easily  cultivated  than  rough,  hilly 
land,  and  is  therefore  generally  used  for  crop  production.  Rough, 
or  hilly,  land  can  not  be  worked  so  economically  and  is  there- 
fore used  for  pasture.  The  farmers  of  the  United  States  raise 
crops  upon  the  land  which  is  adapted  to  crop  production;  they 
pasture  the  land  that,  because  of  topography  or  lack  of  drain- 
age, is  not  adapted  to  raising  crops.  It  seems  to  be  a  general 
rule  of  the  dairy  business  that  it  does  not  ordinarily  pay  to  pas- 
ture land  which  can  be  used  for  ci-op  production. 


140 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO  DAIRY  FARMING 


141 


4.  —  Competing  Types  of  Farming  May  Prevent  the 
Development  of  Dairying 
There  are  many  regions  that  are  fairly  well  adapted  to  dairy- 
ing, yet  this  industry  has  never  been  developed  m  them  to  an 
important  degree.  One  reason  for  this  is  that  these  regions  are 
also  adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruit  and  other  intensive  crops. 
Often  fruits,  especially  grapes  or  small  fruits,  are  raised  on  land 
which  is  too  rough  to  cultivate  for  any  other  purpose.    This  is 


Fig.  47.  —  Mountainside  pasture  adapted  to  small  cows  which  can  move 
around  easily. 

the  land  which  would  naturally  be  used  for  pasture.  It  pays 
better,  however,  for  fruit  growing.  In  parts  of  these  sections 
fruit  growing,  and  the  growing  of  beans,  cabbages,  potatoes,  and 
other  field  crops  will  provide  a  very  fair  income  for  a  farmer 
without  his  keeping  a  dairy  through  the  winter.  Moreover,  in 
these  areas  there  has  not  been  a  pressing  demand  for  milk.  Con- 
sequently competitive  types  of  farming  have  prevented  the 
development  of  dairying. 


142  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

6.  —  Dairying  Has  Developed  Best  among  People  Who 
Understand  Dairy  Cattle 

One  factor  which  has  encouraged  the  development  of  dairying 
in  the  United  States  is  the  presence  of  farmers  of  English  and 
Teutonic  origins  who  for  many  generations  have  been  familiar 
with  dairy  farming.  These  farmers  by  inheritance  are  cattlemen. 
They  and  their  families  are  accustomed  to  the  work  of  milking 
and  caring  for  cattle,  and  to  treating  their  diseases;  and  they 
understand  the  habits  of  cattle.  Because  of  this  vast  fimd  of 
experience  they  are  very  successful  dairymen  and  usually  surpass 
men  of  other  nationalities  in  this  business.  There  are  no  more 
expert  handlers  of  cattle  in  America  than  are  to  be  found  among 
these  descendants  of  the  Scotch,  English,  and  Holland  settlers. 

6.  —  Transportation  Determines  the  Dairy  Product 
Which  Can  Be  Sold  with  Profit 

In  studying  transportation  as  it  affects  dairying,  we  must  take 
into  account  two  factors:  distance  from  the  farm  to  the  shippmg 
point,  and  distance  from  the  shipping  point  to  the  ultimate 
market.  Two  decades  ago  New  York  State  was  the  most  im- 
portant butter-  and  cheese-producing  region  in  the  United  States. 
To-day  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Miimesota  are  rapidly 
taking  the  butter  and  cheese  business  away  from  New  York. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  As  New  York  City,  Boston, 
Philadelphia,  and  the  many  other  large  cities  of  the  East  con- 
stantly increase  in  size,  they  require  increasing  amounts  of  milk. 
Milk  must  reach  the  city  in  such  condition  that  it  can  be  delivered 
to  the  consumer  and  used  by  him  before  spoiling.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  bring  milk  more  than  four  hundred  miles  from  the 
farm  to  the  city.  The  territory  within  from  three  to  four  hundred 
miles  of  these  Eastern  cities  has  been  able  in  the  past  to  produce 
all  the  milk  required  by  them  and  a  large  amount  of  butter  and 
cheese  besides.  As  the  cities  needed  more  milk,  they  paid  a  price 
somewhat  in  excess  of  the  butter-  and  cheese-factory  price  and 
induced  most  of  the  farmers  of  the  region  to  ship  fluid  milk  to 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO   DAIRY   FARMING  143 

them,  rather  than  butter  and  cheese.  This  is  the  natural  economic 
development  that  we  should  expect. 

There  are  several  factors  which  make  it  uneconomical  for  the 
dairyman  of  the  East  to  produce  butter  or  cheese.  The  dairyman 
of  the  West  can  purchase  or  raise  his  grain  much  more  cheaply 
than  can  the  dairyman  of  the  East.    Butter  and  cheese  are  both 


Fig.  48.  —  Limestone  walls  indicate  that  legumes  can  be  easily  grown  and 
that  feed  bills  may  be  kept  at  a  minimum. 

concentrated  food  products  and  can  be  shipped  one  third  of  the 
way  across  the  United  States  for  less  than  five  per  cent  of  their 
cost,  or  at  a  cost  of  from  two  to  three  cents  a  pound.  Hay,  silage, 
and  other  roughage  often  are  cheaper  in  the  West  than  in  the 
East.  Many  of  the  Western  dairy  regions  are  just  as  well  adapted 
as  the  East  to  pasture.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  ship  one  pound  of 
butter  or  cheese  a  long  distance  than  it  is  to  ship  the  several 


144  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

pounds  of  grain  required  to  produce  this  butter  and  cheese.  The 
Western  dairyman  can  ship  the  concentrated  product  in  the 
form  of  butter  or  cheese  to  the  Eastern  market  at  such  a  low 
transportation  cost  that  he  is  able  to  compete  successfully  with 
the  dairjanen  of  that  region. 

These,  then,  are  the  two  factors  which  are  affecting  the  type 
of  dairy  products  of  Eastern  and  Western  dairy  regions.  First, 
the  large  cities  of  the  East  demand  fluid  milk  and  are  willing  to 
pay  more  money  for  it  than  the  same  milk  would  bring  when 
made  up  into  butter  and  cheese.  This  increase  if  great  enough 
insures  the  shipping  of  fluid  milk  to  the  cities.  Second,  all  food 
costs  which  enter  into  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese  are 
cheaper  in  the  West  and  attract  the  production  of  these  products 
to  Western  regions.  We  should  expect  in  the  future  to  see  butter 
and  cheese  production  diminishing  in  New  York  State,  the  New 
England  States,  Penns^^lvania,  and  New  Jersey  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  in  population  of  our  great  Eastern  cities.  And, 
similarly,  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  in  the  West  we  should 
expect  to  see  butter  and  cheese  production  give  way  to  the  pro- 
duction and  shipment  of  fluid  milk. 

7.  —  Adaptation  of  Dairying  to  New  and 
Undeveloped  Regions 

Many  articles  have  been  published  about  the  development  of 
dairying  in  new  regions  of  the  United  States.  We  should  expect 
that  wherever  a  city  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  dairying  must 
be  developed  within  shipping  distance  for  fluid  milk  in  proportion 
to  the  population  of  that  city.  There  has  been  considerable  dis- 
cussion, also,  of  the  extension  of  dairying  in  the  irrigated  regions. 
Irrigated  land  is  capable  of  furnishing  a  good  supply  of  pasture 
and  is  generally  adapted  to  the  growing  of  alfalfa.  Irrigated  land, 
however,  is  always  very  expensive  land,  and  dairying  very  rarely 
is  developed  on  expensive  land,  unless  that  land  is  very  close  to 
market.  None  of  our  irrigated  areas  is  close  to  market.  The 
area  of  irrigated  land  in  the  I'nited  States  is  very  small.     If  all 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO   DAIRY  FARMING 


145 


of  it  were  developed  for  dairy  farming,  it  would  not  affect  the 
dairy  market  of  the  country  as  a  whole  to  any  great  extent. 

Dairy  farming  has  been  developed  in  the  South  somewhat 
during  the  past  ten  years.  The  southern  part  of  the  United 
States,  however,  is  naturally  unadapted  to  the  production  of 
hay.    Most  of  it  produces  very  poor  pasture.    Dairying  has  never 


Fi(i.  40.  —  Typical  alfalfa  huid  in  New  \'ork.     Kspccially  adapted  to  dairying, 
because  of  its  ability  to  produce  this  excellent  dairy  roughage. 


been  developed  extensively  in  regions  with  a  warm  climate.  It 
demands  skilled  labor  and  most  of  the  labor  supply  of  the  South 
hitherto  has  been,  and  may  for  some  time  continue  to  be,  un- 
skilled. In  certain  sections  of  the  South  that  have  fair  pasture 
land  and  that  grow  alfalfa  abundantly,  we  may  expect  some 
development  of  dairy  farming.    The  development  of  more  diver- 


146  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

sitiod  furniing  now  bcins  urged  in  the  South  may  include  some 
dairying.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  this 
section  probably  will  never  be  able  to  develop  dairy  farming  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  will  supply  even  its  own  people  with  ade- 
quate quantities  of  fluid  milk,  butter,  and  cheese. 

Using  the  last  United  States  census  report  as  a  source  of  data, 
work  out  the  following  factors: 

1.  List  in  order  of  importance  the  ten  states  having  the  greatest 

number  of  dairy  cows. 

2.  List  in  order  of  importance  the  ten  counties  of  your  state  having 

the  greatest  number  of  dairy  cows. 

3.  List  in  order  of  importance  the  ten  states  producing  the  greatest 

quantities  of  butter;  cheese. 

4.  List  in  order  of  importance  the  counties  of  your  state  producing  the 

greatest  quantities  of  butter;  cheese. 

5.  Obtain    the    local    wholesale    price    for    butter,   cheese,  and 

fluid  milk.  If  100  pounds  of  milk  will  produce  a  number  of 
pounds  of  cheese  equal  to  2.7  times  the  percentage  of  butter 
fat  as  shown  by  the  Babcock  test,  compute  the  price  which 
you  should  receive  for  your  milk  if  sold  for  cheese;  butter; 
or  fluid  milk  without  making  any  allowance  for  factory  costs. 

6.  Is  the  milk  produced  in  your  locaUty  sold  as  fluid  milk  or  for 

manufacturing  purposes? 

7.  Is  your  county  adapted  to  dairying?     Why? 

8.  Is  your  farm  adapted  to  dairying?     Why? 

9.  From  the  last  census  report  prepare  a  tabular  statement  to 

include  the  following  factors  for  your  state,  your  county  and 
three  other  counties  of  the  state: 

Number  of  farms 
Number  of  dairy  cows 


REGIONS  ADAPTED  TO   DAIRY   FARMING  ]47 

Number  of  dairy  cows  per  farm 
Pounds  of  butter  made  on  farms 
Pounds  of  butter  made  in  factories 
Pounds  of  cheese  made  in  factories 

10.  Tabulate  by  months  the  percentage  of  milk,  butter,  cream,  and  cheese 

made  in  each  month  of  the  year.     EW  :  215. 

11.  During  what  months  is  the  most  cheese  ynade  in  Wisconsin? 

EW  :  216. 

12.  Which  slate   raises  the  largest  number  of  calves  yearly,  Wisconsin, 

New  York,  or  Iowa?  EW  :  214. 

13.  What  changes  have  occurred  in  the  amounts  of  butter  and  cheese  pro- 

duced in  Neiv  York,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota  in  the  last  ten 
years?    EW  :  211. 


CHAPTER  XII 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION  AND  A  SYSTEM 
FOR  MAINTAINING  FERTILITY 

1.  Plan  a  crop  rotation 

(1)  Grow  enough  hay  to  feed  all  the  hve  stock 

(2)  Grow  legumes 

(3)  Produce  sufficient  succulent  roughage 

(4)  Grow  other  crops  in  the  rotation 

(5)  Decide  upon  the  best  order  in  which  to  grow  the  crops 

(6)  Essentials  of  a  good  crop  rotation 

(7)  Reasons  for  a  crop  rotation 

2.  Exclude  pasture  from  the  crop  rotation  where  possible 

3.  Provide  for  two  rotations  where  conditions  warrant  them 

4.  Manure  the  pasture 

5.  Use  commercial  fertilizer  to  supplement  the  manure 

6.  Use  lime  where  needed 

In  organizing  the  business  of  a  dairy  farm,  it  is  as  essential  to 
plan  a  careful  cropping  system  as  to  plan  the  careful  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  herd.  The  farm  should  feed  the  dairy  herd  to 
a  great  extent,  in  most  cases  supplying  all  the  roughage  and  in 
many  cases  a  considerable  part  of  the  concentrates.  This  part 
of  the  business  must  be  well  planned  in  order  to  obtain  the  great- 
est efficiency  of  the  business  as  a  whole.  Moreover,  manure  is 
an  important  product  of  the  dairy  herd,  but  it  is  worth  no  more 
to  the  dairyman  than  he  is  able  to  make  it  worth  to  his  business. 
A  well  planned  and  organized  cropping  system  is  essential,  if  he 
is  to  get  the  full  value  from  the  manure, 

148 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION 


149 


1.  —  Plan  a  Crop  Rotation 

The  first  step  in  planning  a  crop  rotation  is  to  decide  what 
crops  to  grow.  The  size  of  the  dairy  herd,  the  number  of  horses, 
the  number  of  other  animals,  the  crop  adaptations  of  the  region, 
the  marketing  facilities,  and  various  other  factors  will  assist  you 
in  deciding,  first,  what  crops  you  must  grow;  second,  the  acreage 
of  each  crop;  and,  third,  the  crops  which  it  would  be  well  to  grow 
in  order  to  have  a  well  balanced  business. 

(1)  Grow  enough  hay  to  feed  all  the  live  stock.  —  The  dairy 
farm  should  be  planned  always  to  produce  enough  hay  or  other  dry 
roughage  to  feed  all  of  its  live  stock.  Hay  is  a  very  bulky  product 
and  a  ton  occupies  a  large  amount  of  shipping  space.  It  is  only 
possible  to  put  ten  or  twelve  tons  of  hay  in  a  freight  car  and  this 
makes  it  expensive  to  ship  it  for  long  distances.    The  man  who 


Fig.  50.  —  Well  tilled  land  is  essential  to  successful  dairy  farming.  A  good 
job  of  plowing  done  at  the  right  time  goes  a  long  way  towards  insuring 
a  good  crop. 


150  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

purchases  must  pay  the  high  cost  of  shipping  this  large  bulk. 
Furthermore,  in  all  dairy  regions,  hay  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 
crops  that  can  be  produced.  Cost  account  records  show  that  a 
larger  profit  is  made,  on  the  average,  for  each  hour  of  time  ex- 
pended in  producing  hay  than  in  any  other  labor  performed  on 
the  farm.  The  hay  crop  fits  well  in  the  work  with  dairy  cattle, 
as  the  hay  harvesting  comes  at  the  time  of  year  generally  when 
the  dairy  herd  is  producing  the  smallest  quantity  of  milk,  and 
when  the  least  amount  of  labor  is  required  to  produce  that  milk. 

The  dairy  farm  should  be  planned  to  produce  enough  hay  for 
its  needs,  even  in  years  when  the  crop  is  short.  If  it  is  necessary 
to  purchase  hay  in  these  years,  the  farmer  will  find  that  he  is 
compelled  to  pay  very  high  prices  because  of  the  general  shortage. 
It  is  always  better  to  plan  to  have  enough  hay  in  poor  years  and 
to  sell  a  part  of  the  crop  in  good  years,  than  to  have  just  enough 
in  the  best  years  and  have  to  purchase  what  is  needed  in  the 
poor  years. 

(2)  Grow  legumes.  —  Grow  as  large  a  proportion  of  legumes 
in  your  hay  as  possible.  The  best  legume  to  raise  is  alfalfa.  If 
you  can  not  raise  alfalfa  successfully,  raise  red  clover,  alsike, 
sweet  clover,  oat  and  pea  hay,  vetch,  or  any  other  leguminous 
plants  that  do  well  in  your  section.  Legumes  contain  a  large 
amount  of  protein,  the  most  expensive  feed  element  that  we  buy 
for  our  dairy  herd.  The  cattle  feeds  which  contam  a  large  quantity 
of  protein  are  always  the  highest  priced  feeds.  A  large  proportion 
of  protein  in  the  hay  will  make  it  possible  for  the  dairyman  to 
feed  a  much  less  expensive  grain  mixture.  Another  reason  for 
producing  leguminous  hay  is  that  these  plants  gather  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  enrich  the  soil.  Consequently,  they  mcrease 
its  productivity  for  the  succeeding  crops.  The  excellent  crops  of 
com  or  potatoes  which  are  made  after  plowing  under  a  clover 
sod  are  conmion  evidences  of  this. 

It  is  seldom  possible,  however,  to  devote  the  entire  hay  acreage 
to  leguminous  hay  unless  alfalfa  grows  readily.  Red  clover  in 
many  sections  runs  out  after  one  year  and  we  have  in  its  place 
timothy,  blue  grass,  or  whatever  other  hay  was  seeded  with  it. 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION  151 

Alsike  clover  will  ordinarily  persist  a  little  longer  than  the  red 
clover,  but  it  produces  a  smaller  crop.  If  you  are  dependent  on 
red  clover  for  your  principal  legume,  it  will  generally  be  necessary 
to  leave  hay  down  only  one  year  and  to  seed  each  year  as  large 
an  acreage  of  hay  as  you  expect  to  cut  over  the  next  year.  On 
account  of  the  high  price  of  clover  seed,  this  is  rather  expensive 
and  makes  a  heavy  charge  against  the  farm  business.  Moreover, 
land  which  is  in  sod  is  gathering  humus  rather  than  destroying 
it.  Therefore,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  land  in  sod  for  several  years 
in  succession  if  possible. 

The  practical  dairyman  solves  this  problem  by  leaving  his 
hay  down  for  two  or  three  years.  The  field  on  which  he  cuts  his 
new  seeding  will  be  almost  clear  clover.  If  he  uses  some  alsike 
clover  in  his  seeding,  he  will  have  a  considerable  amount  of  clover 
in  the  field  which  he  is  cutting  over  for  the  second  or  even  for 
the  third  time.  There  is  opportunity  to  dispose  of  considerable 
timothy  hay  by  feeding  it  to  the  horses.  Timothy  hay  is  usually 
considered  to  be  a  better  feed  for  horses  than  is  clover  hay.  The 
remainder  of  the  timothy  hay  may  be  sold,  fed  to  drj^  stock  in 
small  quantities,  or  fed  for  a  portion  of  the  season  to  the  regular 
dairy  herd. 

(3)  Produce  sufficient  succulent  roughage.  —  The  dairy  farm 
should  produce  enough  silage,  roots,  or  other  succulent  feed  for  the 
dairy  herd.  In  regions  of  the  United  States  where  any  variety 
of  com  can  be  produced  economically  the  cheapest  succulent 
feed  for  winter  is  com  silage,  and  it  is  much  cheaper  to  feed  the 
herd  on  this  sort  of  roughage  than  on  any  other.  With  the  high 
price  which  the  American  farmer  must  pay  for  labor,  the  pro- 
duction of  root  crops  is  too  costly  to  compete  with  the  produc- 
tion of  com.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  "Feeding  the 
Dairy  Cow,"  succulent  feed  is  essential  for  the  most  profitable 
winter  milk  production.  In  regions  where  com  grows  well,  it  is 
desirable  to  produce  silage  to  feed  the  young  stock  as  well  as  the 
milking  animals.  In  regions  which  are  not  so  well  adapted  to 
com,  or  where  the  length  of  time  between  killing  frosts  is  less 
than  one  hundred  forty  days,   it  is  generally  cheaper  to  feed 


152 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


young  stock  on  good  leguminous  dry  roughage  entirely,  than  to 
feed  them  partly  on  expensive  com  silage.  A  dairy  cow  producing 
a  large  quantity  of  milk  will  ordinarily  consume  from  three  to 
five  tons  of  com  silage  m  a  winter,  or  forty  pounds  of  silage  per 
day.  A  two-hundred  day  period  requires  at  this  rate  just  four 
tons  per  cow  for  the  winter.     Silage  com  can  not  generally  be 


Fig.  51.  — Lodged  grain  may  choke  out  the  seeding  and  cause  a  temporary 
change  in  the  rotation. 

depended  upon  to  yield  an  average  of  much  more  than  eight  or 
nine  tons  per  acre.  The  practical  dairyman,  therefore,  plans  to 
grow  about  one  acre  of  silage  com  for  each  two  cows  in  his  herd. 
This  will  generally  give  him  enough  silage  to  feed  through  the 
winter.  In  an  exceptionally  good  com  j^ear,  after  fillmg  the  silo, 
he  will  have  some  com  left  over  to  husk  and  the  comstalks 
to  feed. 


PLANNING  A  CROP   ROTATION  153 

(4)  Grow  other  crops  in  the  rotation.  —  The  crop  rotation  must 
contain  enough  small  grain,  such  as  oats,  wheat,  barley,  or  rye, 
to  irisure  a  good  catch  of  the  meadow  grasses  when  seeding.  In 
some  regions  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  these  grains, 
the  dairy  farm  may  produce  a  larger  acreage  of  them  than  is 
required  for  this  purpose,  but  in  most  dairy  regions,  the  acreage 
of  small  grains  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  grass  seeding 
required  each  year.  Small  grain  is  also  grown  for  the  sake  of  the 
straw  to  be  used  as  bedding. 

In  order  to  develop  a  well  plamied  dairy-farming  business,  it  is 
advisable  to  raise  as  large  an  acreage  of  the  best  cash  crop  of  the 
region  as  possible.  This  may  be  hay,  potatoes,  beans,  cabbages, 
tobacco,  corn,  hops,  wheat,  or  some  other  crop. 

1.  What  is  the  most  common  cash  crop  in:    (1)  The  Northeastern 

States?     (2)   the  Middle  Western  States?     (3)  the  North- 
western States?    (4)  the  Southern  States? 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  cash  crops  raised  in  your  region?     W- 

FM:  406. 

(5)  Decide  upon  the  best  order  in  which  to  grow  the  crops.  — 

After  decidmg  upon  what  crops  shall  be  grown,  you  necessarily 
will  have  to  plan  the  succession  hi  which  they  may  be  grown  in 
order  to  formulate  your  rotation.  This  succession  is  more  or  less 
fixed  by  seasonal  conditions,  by  plant  characteristics,  and  by  the 
experience  of  generations  of  farmers.  When  sod  ground  is  plowed 
up,  corn  is  generally  the  first  crop  raised  upon  the  field.  There 
are  several  reasons  for  this.  Corn  is  known  as  a  rank  feeder.  It 
can  obtain  plant  food  from  sod  or  organic  matter  which  has 
only  begun  to  decay  to  a  greater  extent  than  can  most  other 
crops.  For  this  reason,  it  does  better  on  freshly  plowed  sod  ground 
than  do  other  crops.  A  second  reason  for  plantmg  corn  is  that 
it  is  a  cultivated  crop,  and  cultivation  makes  it  possible  to  kill 
the  weeds  that  have  multiplied  in  the  sod  ground. 

Oats  or  barley  customarily  follows  corn.  By  the  second  year, 
the  sod  has  largely  decayed  and  these  gram  crops  can  feed  effi- 
ciently on  the  plant  food  produced.    Grain  crops  do  not  ordinarily 


154  DAIRY  FAR]MING  PROJECTS 

do  well  the  first  year  after  sod,  because  of  the  difficulty  iii  plow- 
ing under  sod  early  enough  to  make  a  well  settled  seed  bed  for  the 
sowing  of  the  grains.  In  most  of  the  dairy  regions,  wheat  and 
rye  can  not  be  sowed  after  com,  as  the  com  is  not  removed  from 
the  field  early  enough  to  permit  seeding  with  these  winter  grains. 
In  the  regions  where  wheat  is  commonly  gro\m  after  com,  cli- 
matic and  soil  conditions  are  such  that  dairying  is  not  generally 
carried  on.  If  wheat  is  grown  on  the  dairy  farm,  it  will  generally 
follow  oats  or  barley  and  precede  clover  in  the  rotation.  The 
grasses  generally  follow  small  grains,  although  there  are  limited 
sections  in  New  England  where  grass  is  seeded  with  com. 

A  common  rotation,  then,  for  a  dairy  farm,  is  com,  oats,  clover, 
and  timothy,  with  the  field  remaining  in  timothy  from  one  to 
three  years.  In  case  potatoes,  beans,  or  cabbages  are  raised,  these 
crops  will  ordinarily  be  placed  on  freshly  plowed  sod  ground  along 
with  the  com  and  followed  by  oats  in  the  same  way  as  the  com. 
If  the  acreage  of  the  farm  does  not  permit  the  foregoing,  the 
rotation  is  sometimes  com,  potatoes,  oats,  clover,  timothy,  and 
sometimes  potatoes,  com,  oats,  clover,  and  timothj^;  beans  or 
cabbages  in  either  case  being  substituted  directly  for  the  potatoes. 
Such  rotations  as  these,  however,  mean  raising  a  cultivated  crop 
on  a  field  two  years  in  succession.  This  results  in  a  more  rapid 
oxidation  of  the  humus  and  a  consequently  greater  exhaustion 
of  fertility. 

(6)  Essentials  of  a  good  crop  rotation.  —  A  good  crop  rotation 
should  provide  the  following  essentials: 

1.  Sufficient  dry  roughage  for  the  live  stock  on  the  farm. 

2.  Sufficient  succulent  roughage  for  the  dairy  herd  which  is  in 
milk  during  the  winter. 

3.  Every  field  should  remain  in  sod  from  one  to  three  years, 
and  this  sod  should  include  as  much  clover,  alfalfa,  or  other 
legumes  as  possible. 

4.  A  crop  of  small  grain  with  which  to  seed  for  hay. 
6.   One  cultivated  crop. 

6.  As  large  an  area  as  possible  of  the  most  profitable  cash 
crop  of  the  region. 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION 


155 


7.  The  area  of  each  crop  should  be  nearly  the  same  year  after 
year. 

(7)  Reasons  for  a  crop  rotation.  —  There  are  important  reasons 
for  crop  rotation,  some  of  which  have  been  discussed  already. 
They  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 


Fig.  52.  —  Cabbage  furnish  a  cultivated  crop  in  the  rotation  and  make  a  good 
cash  crop.  If  the  market  is  over-supphed,  they  are  an  excellent  succulent 
feed  worth  the  cost  of  raising. 


1.  A  crop  rotation  helps  to  control  weeds,  plant  diseases,  and 
insect  pests. 

2.  A  crop  rotation  helps  to  keep  up  the  humus  supply  of  the 
soil. 

S.  A  crop  rotation  often  saves  labor.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country,  it  is  possible  to  sow  a  small  grain  crop,  such  as  winter 
wheat  or  oats,  after  potatoes  or  beans  without  plowing.    Grasses 


156  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

and  small  grain  are  sown  at  the  same  time  with  one  fertilization, 
and  one  preparation  of  the  seed  bed. 

4.  A  crop  rotation  keeps  the  land  occupied  with  crops  a  larger 
share  of  the  time.  This  prevents  erosion  and  makes  it  possible 
for  all  plant  food  which  becomes  available  to  be  absorbed  by  a 
useful  crop,  instead  of  ^being  lost  by  leaching  out  of  the  soil  or 
being  used  up  by  weeds. 

5.  A  crop  rotation  provides  for  the  alternation  of  deep  and 
shallow  rooted  crops.  In  this  way,  a  greater  portion  of  the  soil 
is  used  to  produce  food,  and  plant  food  is  brought  by  the  deep 
rooted  crops  from  the  lower  soil  and  left  in  the  upper  soil  by 
decay  for  use  by  the  shallow  rooted  crops. 

6.  A  crop  rotation  may  provide  for  a  balanced  removal  of  the 
plant  food. 

7.  A  crop  rotation  is  the  first  step  in  the  organization  of  a  well 
balanced,  systematic  dairy-farm  business. 


2.  —  Exclude  Pasture  from  the  Crop  Rotation 
Where  Possible 

Wherever  possible,  pasture  should  be  permanent  rather  than 
rotated.  A  permanent  pasture  ordinarity  provides  cheaper  feed 
than  rotated  pasture,  as  land  that  can  be  used  for  the  production 
of  crops  will  generall}^  pay  a  better  income  through  crop  produc- 
tion than  through  pasture.  Dairy  farms  are  generally  located  in 
regions  where  pasture  is  available  and  almost  universally  they 
depend  for  a  large  part  of  their  profits  upon  the  use  of  cheap 
pasture.  The  use. of  pasture  in  a  rotation  makes  it  necessary  to 
fence  all  the  fields  in  the  rotation.  This  is  expensive.  The  annual 
upkeep  of  the  fence  and  the  large  amount  of  expensive  labor  to 
mow  the  fence  lines  and  keep  them  free  from  weeds  and  brush 
each  year  is  an  additional  cost.  If  a  field  is  pastured  in  the  crop 
rotation,  however,  the  meadow  is  generally  pastured  for  one 
year  just  previous  to  plowing  it  up  for  corn  or  for  any  other 
following  crop  that  requires  cultivation. 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION  157 

1.  How  wide  a  strip  of  land  is  wasted  by  each  of  the  common 
types  of  fences?     W-FM  :  387. 


3.  —  Provide  for  Two  Rotations  Where 
Conditions  Warrant  Them 

There  are  several  conditions  under  which  it  is  desirable  to  have 
two  rotations  on  the  same  farm.  In  many  cases,  it  happens  that 
there  are  two,  three,  or  sometimes  four  small  fields  of  from  one- 
half  acre  to  two  acres  in  close  proximity  to  the  dairy  farmstead. 
In  such  a  case,  these  fields  may  be  planned  with  a  special  rotation, 
the  purpose  of  which  will  be  to  furnish  grain  and  succulent  feed 
during  the  season  when  pasture  has  begun  to  dry  up  and  cows 
have  begun  to  show  decrease  in  their  milk.  These  fields  may 
grow,  then,  a  succession  of  such  crops  as  oats  and  peas,  rye, 
millet,  fodder  corn,  and  alfalfa.  One  such  field  may  be  kept  in 
mangels  or  root  crops  each  year,  if  the  ownership  of  a  pure  bred 
herd  and  Advanced  Registry  testing  each  winter  necessitate  the 
raising  of  such  a  crop. 

In  many  cases  the  dairy  farm  has  several  fields  which  are  so 
far  away  from  the  farmstead  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  raise 
silage  corn  or  any  other  cultivated  crop  upon  them.  Such  fields 
may  be  kept  in  a  rotation  of  buckwheat,  oats,  clover,  and  timothy; 
or  oats,  wheat,  clover,  and  timothy,  the  hay  being  left  down  as  long 
as  it  is  profitable  to  cut  it.  This  will  provide  for  the  minimum 
amount  of  travehng  to  these  fields  each  year.  If  such  land  is 
adapted  to  it,  often  it  is  desirable  to  seed  it  down  to  alfalfa  and 
leave  it  as  long  as  it  is  profitable  to  mow  it.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  plow  up  the  field,  it  should  produce  one  or  two  crops  of  small 
grains  and  be  seeded  down  again  as  soon  as  possible. 

Two  radically  different  types  of  soil  on  the  same  farm  may 
make  it  necessary  to  have  two  rotations.  The  presence  of  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  wet  land  makes  it  necessary  to  have  one 
rotation  for  the  wet  land  and  another  for  the  dry  land.  If  a  farm 
has  river-bottom  land  and  hill  land,  two  rotations  may  be  necessary. 


158  DAIRY  FARIMING  PROJECTS 

4.  —  Manure  the  Pasture 

Probably  no  better  returns  can  })e  obtained  from  the  use  of 
manure  than  by  applying  it  in  limited  quantities  to  pasture  land. 
This  question  will  be  discussed  more  at  length  in  a  later  chapter 
on  the  care  of  pasture.  In  planning  the  disposal  of  the  manure, 
however,  it  is  well  worth  while  for  the  dairyman  to  plan  to 
apply  on  a  portion  of  his  pasture  each  year  as  much  manure  as 
he  can  spare  from  the  cultivated  crops  and  meadows.  There  are 
parts  of  the  year  when  it  is  impossible  to  spread  manure  on  crop 
land  because  crops  are  growing.  These  commonly  occur  during 
the  months  of  May  and  June,  and  to  a  limited  extent  during 
July  and  August.  Any  manure  which  may  be  produced  in  the 
stable  at  these  times  can  be  profitably  applied  to  pasture  land. 

5.  —  Use  Commercial  Fertilizer  to  Supplement  the  Manure 

In  Chapter  IX  we  have  seen  that  barnyard  manure  m  itself 
is  not  a  balanced  fertilizer.  It  contains  large  quantities  of  nitro- 
gen and  a  considerable  amount  of  potash,  but  is  deficient  in  phos- 
phorus. Phosphorus  is  one  of  the  most  necessary  fertilizers. 
The  first  fertilizer  that  you  should  consider  using  on  a  dairy 
farm  should  be  some  phosphorus  carrier,  such  as  acid  phosphate, 
or  raw  rock  phosphate.  The  acid  phosphate  is  much  more  avail- 
able, and  more  widely  recommended,  although  in  certain  sections 
of  the  Middle  West  where  the  land  is  exceptionally  rich  in  humus, 
the  raw  rock  phosphate  is  commonly  used.  On  most  dairy  farms, 
if  there  is  a  sufficient  amoimt  of  manure  produced  so  that  each 
field  may  have  a  liberal  application  at  least  once  in  four  years, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  purchase  commercial  nitrogen  or  com- 
mercial potash.  If  the  farm  is  in  poor  condition  at  the  begummg 
of  the  business,  it  may  be  necessary  to  purchase  these  forms  of 
fertilizers  for  a  few  years  until  all  of  the  fields  have  been  manured 
over.  Also,  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  potash  for  a  longer  period, 
if  the  soil  is  especially  deficient  in  it,  or  if  some  cash  crop  is  raised 
which  seems  to  respond  particularly  well  to  applications  of  potash. 

In  the  more  extensive  dairy  regions  where  the  land  is  in  a  fair 


PLANNING  A  CROP  ROTATION  159 

state  of  fertility  and  a  rotation  of  corn,  oats,  clover,  and  timothy 
is  practiced,  soil  fertility  seems  to  be  maintained  very  satisfac- 
torily under  the  following  conditions :  first,  if  two  thirds  or  more 
of  the  hay  produced  is  fed  on  the  farm;  second,  if  the  straw  is 
used  up  in  the  manure;  third,  if  sufficient  animals  are  kept  so 
that  each  field  in  the  rotation  may  receive  an  application  of  from 
ten  to  twenty  tons  of  manure  per  acre,  once  in  five  years;  fourth, 
if  the  meadow  grasses  raised  contain  a  large  proportion  of  legu- 
minous plants;  fifth,  if  acid  phosphate  is  applied  to  the  corn  at 
the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  hundred  pounds  per  acre;  sixth,  if 
lime  is  applied  at  the  time  of  seeding  grass  in  amounts  according 
to  the  soil  needs;  seventh,  if  the  manure  produced  is  applied  to 
the  fields  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  care  in  saving  all  the  plant 
nutrients. 

6.  —  Use  Lime  Where  Needed 

If  the  soil  of  the  dairy  farm  is  a  limestone  soil  and  contains  a 
sufficient  amount  of  limestone  for  all  of  its  needs,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  apply  lime  in  a  commercial  form.  A  very  large  proportion 
of  our  dairy  land,  however,  is  deficient  in  lime.  On  such  farms, 
it  should  be  applied  at  least  once  in  the  rotation.  The  best  plan 
is  to  apply  it  as  a  top  dressing  and  to  harrow  it  in  just  previous 
to  sowing  the  grain  and  grass  seed.  The  amount  of  lime  may 
vary  from  one  thousand  pounds  to  several  tons  per  acre,  depend- 
ing upon  the  acidity  of  the  soil.  It  is  not  economical,  generally, 
to  attempt  to  correct  the  acidity  entirely  at  one  liming,  as  this 
would  be  too  expensive.  The  practical  dairyman,  unless  he  is 
preparing  land  for  alfalfa,  rarely  applies  more  than  a  ton  of  lime 
per  acre  at  one  time. 

Acid  soils  must  be  limed  in  order  to  produce  the  best  yields  of 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  most  other  legumes.  Lime  is  a  very  cheap  soil 
amendment.  Its  effect  extends  over  a  number  of  years.  The 
chief  drawback  to  its  use  is  the  labor  cost  of  handling  the  large 
bulk  required  and  of  applying  it  economically  to  the  soil. 

The  form  of  lime  to  be  used  depends  upon  the  cost  and  the 
distance  of  hauling.    If  the  different  grades  are  of  equal  purity, 


IGO  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

fifty-six  pounds  of  burnt  lime  are  equivalent  to  seventy-four 
pounds  of  hydrated  lime  and  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  ground 
limestone.  Ground  limestone,  however,  is  generally  much  more 
pleasant  to  handle,  as  it  has  no  caustic  properties  and  does  not 
require  slaking.  The  farmer  who  lives  several  miles  from  market 
and  must  haul  his  lime  a  great  distance  should  consider  care- 
fully the  advisability  of  using  burnt  lime,  as  the  labor  saved  by 
hauling  the  much  smaller  amount  required  is  a  considerable  item. 

1.  Plan  a  rotation  for  the  farm  where  your  project  herd  is  kept; 

give  the  acreage  of  each  crop  and  reasons  for  that  acreage 
being  raised. 

2.  Make  a  fertilizing  plan  for  this  farm,  showing  to  what  crops 

and  in  what  amounts  the  manure,  Ume,  and  acid  phosphate 
will  be  applied. 

3.  Formulate  a  suitable  rotation  and  make  a  fertilizing  plan  as  in 

problems  1  and  2  for  each  of  the  following  conditions: 

a.  A  farm  with  one  hundred  crop  acres,  twenty-five  cows, 

and  the  possibility  of  hay,  potatoes,  and   beans  as 
cash  crops. 

b.  A  farm  in  very  poor  condition  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 

crop  acres,  forty  cows,  and  the  possibiUty  of  raising 
hay  or  buckwheat  for  cash  crops. 

c.  A  farm  in  good  condition  with  fifty  acres  of  crops,  twelve 

cows,  and  the  possibility  of  potatoes  and  cabbages  as 
cash  crops. 

4.  List  the  leguminous  crops  which  may  be  used  for  hay  and 

arrange  them  in  order  of  the  amount  of  lime  requirement. 

6.  List  the  crops  which  are  used  for  ensiUng  in  your  locality. 

6.  What  relation  has  been  found  between  the  amount  of  cash  crops 

sold  and  the  profits  on  the  average  dairy  farm?     EW  :  276. 

7.  Obtain  the  prices  on  burnt  lime,  hydrated  lime,  and  ground 

Umestone  in  the  nearest  market.     Which  is  the  cheaper 
when  computed  in  terms  of  calcium  content? 


PLANNING   A   CROP   ROTATION  161 

8.  How  fine  should  limestone  be  ground  in  order  to  be  most 

efficient?     LFB  :  540. 

9.  Corn-pare  the  effectiveness  of  caustic  lime  and  ground  limestone  at  the 

Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  plots.     LFB  :  541. 

10.  What  influence  does  lime  have  on  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  the  soil? 

LFB  :  536. 

11.  What  is  gypsum  and  of  what  value  is  it  agriculturally f 

LFB  :  542-543. 

12.  What  are  the  sources  of  phosphorus  for  use  in  fertilizer?    LFB  :  Sll- 

13.  What  is  the  difference  between  raw  rock  phosphate  and  acid  phosphate? 

LFB  :  514. 

14.  What  grades  of  acid  phosphate  may  be  purchased  in  your  region  and 

which  is  cheapest  per  pound  of  phosphoric  acid? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PLANNING  A  BARN  FOR  A  DAIRY  FARM 

1.  What  is  the  most  economical  shape  for  the  dairy  bam? 

2.  What  are  the  best  dairy  bam  dimensions? 

3.  Where  should  the  barn  be  located? 

4.  Is  a  basement  bam  desirable? 

5.  What  building  materials  should  be  used  for  the  dairy 

bam? 

6.  How  should  the  dairy  stable  be  planned? 

7.  How  should  the  silo  be  located  and  built? 

8.  How  should  the  dairy  and  ice  houses  be  located  and 

arranged? 


Fig.  53.  —  A  most  efficient  i\\>''  >>i  <\:ni\  li.-mi.  iwo  ii.\\>  oi  fn\\>  and  \>o\ 
stalls  so  arranged  that  the  farmer  can  drive  througli  the  barn  lengthwise. 
The  horses  are  kept  in  an  L  on  the  back  side  of  the  end  nearest  the  house. 

162 


A  BARN  FOR  A  DAIRY  FARM 


163 


In  Chapter  VIII,  we  already  have  stated  the  essentials  for 
health  in  arranging  a  dairy  stable.  The  planning  of  a  dairy  barn 
involves,  as  well  as  the  essentials  there  covered,  the  whole  problem 
of  housing  economically  and  efficiently  the  dairy  herd,  crops, 
horses,  equipment,  and  supplies. 

A  much  larger  proportion  of  our  dairy  farmers  will  remfldel 
dairy  barns  than  will  build  new  ones.  A  carefully  made  plan  is 
as  necessary  in  one  case  as  in  the  other.  This  chapter  will  con- 
sider the  whole  question  of  barn  planning  as  if  for  a  new  barn. 
Individual  parts  of  the  chapter  will  apply  to  the  remodeling  of 
barns  for  profitable  dairy  farming. 

1.  —  What  Is  the  Most  Economical  Shape  for  the  Dairy  Bam? 

There  are  two  shapes  of  dairy  barns  in  general  use,  the  rec- 
tangular and  the  round.  The  rectangular  barn  is  most  commonly 
used,  and  probably  more  than  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  dairy  barns 
in  use  in  this  country  are  of  that  shape.  During  recent  years, 
however,  there  has  been  some  movement  toward  popularizing  the 


Fig.  54.  —  A  round  barn  on  flat  land  with  a  driveway  leading  to  the  third 
floor.  Economical  of  lumber,  but  unhandy  and  inefficient  in  inside 
arrangement. 


164  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

round  bam.  This  movement  originated  in  the  Middle  West  and 
the  University  of  Illinois  has  issued  a  bulletin  giving  the  advan- 
tages and  methods  of  construction  of  a  round  barn.  As  a  result,  a 
small  proportion  of  the  dairy  farms  in  Illinois  now  have  round 
barns,  and  they  or  some  of  their  adaptations,  such  as  the  hexagonal 
or  octagonal,  are  found  in  every  dairy  state  to  a  limited  extent. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  round  bam  is  in  the  saving  of  lum- 
ber. The  perimeter  of  a  circle  is  much  less  than  the  perimeter 
of  a  rectangle  of  equal  area.  It  requires  a  much  smaller  amount 
of  lumber  to  enclose  a  round  bam  than  to  enclose  a  rectangular 
bam  of  equal  capacity.  The  saving  in  many  cases  approximates 
one  third  of  the  entire  lumber  bill.  Some  of  the  disadvantages 
of  the  round  bam  are:  (1)  It  is  very  difficult  to  handle  a  large 
hay  crop  economically,  as  the  hay  track  for  use  in  unloading  must 
be  circular,  or  else  not  reach  all  parts  of  the  bam..  It  is  obvious 
also  that  the  track  can  not  be  hung  in  the  highest  point  of  the 
roof  and  hence  much  storage  room  up  under  the  roof  is  inacces- 
sible. (2)  It  is  much  easier  for  carpenters  to  construct  stalls  with 
square  comers  than  to  fit  them  against  a  circular  wall.  It  is 
difficult  to  arrange  partitions  in  the  round  barn  m  such  a  way  as 
to  make  box  stalls,  granaries,  bays,  or  other  sections  regular  in 
shape.  (3)  The  round  bam,  if  it  is  large,  is  less  easily  lighted. 
The  dairy  stable,  therefore,  is  much  more  likely  to  be  dark  and 
unsanitary.  (4)  It  is  difficult  to  make  an  economical  arrangement 
for  two  rows  of  cows  in  a  round  bam.  If  the  cows  face  toward 
the  outside  of  the  bam,  the  space  which  each  occupies  is  wider 
at  her  head  than  at  her  hips,  whereas  the  cow  is  wider  at  her  hips 
than  at  her  head.  This  means  that,  if  the  cow  is  given  sufficient 
room  at  her  hips,  there  is  a  considerable  waste  of  room  at  her 
head,  and  a  consequent  waste  of  travel  in  feeding. 

While  the  popularity  of  the  round  barns  seems  to  be  decreasing 
rather  than  increasmg,  the  rectangular  barn  often  has  a  modi- 
fication of  shape.  One  modification  consists  of  an  L  at  one  side, 
extending  outward  from  the  end,  or  some  place  near  the  end,  of 
the  building.  This  L  if  directly  opposite  the  threshing  floor, 
makes  a  very  handy  place  for  the  storage  of  straw.    An  L  also 


A   BARN   FOR  A   DAIRY  FARM 


165 


provides  a  barnyard  sheltered  on  two  sides  from  the  cold  winds. 
Often  the  basement  of  the  L  is  used  for  a  horse  bam,  or  for  a 
calf  bam,  or  for  dry  stock. 

2.  —  What  Are  the  Best  Dairy  Bam  Dimensions? 

The  usual  dairy  barn  is  thirty  to  forty  feet  wide.    If  the  barn 
is  to  contain  two  rows  of  cows,  it  should  be  either  thirty-four 


Fig.  5'^.  —  A  twelve-sided  barn,  with  cows  on  the  second  floor  above  a  manure 
pit.  Note  that  the  ensilage  cutter  must  be  set  up  twice  to  fill  these  silos. 
About  one-third  of  the  silage  must  be  pitched  up  to  get  it  to  the  stable 
floor. 


or  thirty-six  feet  wide.  It  is  not  possible  to  arrange  two  rows  of 
cows  facing  away  from  each  other  and  allow  room  to  drive 
through  the  bam  between  them  with  a  width  less  than  thirty- 
two  feet.  Even  this  width  gives  very  cramped  space.  A  width  of 
thirty-four  or  thirty-six  feet  gives  sufficient  room  for  two  rows 
of  cows  arranged  in  this  way,  and  leaves  enough  space  for  feeding 
alleys  and  a  driveway  of  convenient  size.     If  two  rows  of  cows 


166  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

are  placed  facing  each  other  and  a  driveway  through  the  bam 
is  not  phinned,  they  may  be  crowded  into  a  thirty  foot  width, 
but  a  thirty-four  or  thirty-six  foot  width  with  a  driveway  is  much 
more  convenient.  A  width  greater  than  thirty-six  feet  is  wasteful 
of  space  in  the  basement  and  makes  haymows  m  the  barn  above 
so  wide  that  it  requires  more  labor  to  mow  away  the  hay.  The 
length  of  the  bam  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  size  of  the  busi- 
ness and  the  number  of  animals  kept.  If  the  cows  are  placed  in 
only  one  row  through  the  bam,  the  arrangement  may  be  modified 
somewhat,  but  wherever  any  considerable  number  of  cows  is 
kept,  the  arrangement  in  two  rows  allows  a  much  greater  economy 
in  doing  the  work. 

The  distance  from  the  bam  floor  above  the  basement,  or  the 
top  of  the  sill,  to  the  eaves  of  the  bam,  or  the  top  of  the  plate, 
is  commonly  knowTi  as  the  height  of  post.  The  height  of  post 
and  the  shape  of  roof  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  dry  rough- 
age to  be  stored.  The  height  of  the  barn  should  be  sufficient  to 
provide  for  a  doorway  to  the  driving  floor  at  least  fourteen  feet 
high,  as  this  height  will  be  required  to  bring  in  easily  a  large  load 
of  hay.  In  regions  where  a  large  amount  of  roughage  is  produced, 
a  desirable  height  of  post  is  fourteen  feet  with  a  hip  roof,  or  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  feet  with  an  ordinary  roof. 

3.  —  Where  Should  the  Bam  Be  Located? 

The  dairy  bam  should  be  located  in  a  sheltered  spot  if  possible; 
that  is,  where  an  orchard,  piece  of  woodland,  a  windbreak,  or 
the  natural  topography  of  the  country  protects  it  somewhat  from 
the  wind.  It  should  be  located  on  well  drained  soil  where  the 
foundations  and  the  floors  may  be  kept  dry,  and  where  there 
may  be  a  well  drained  bamyard.  The  barn  should  never  be  so 
located  that  cows  must  wade  through  mud  or  manure  to  get  into 
the  stable  at  any  time  of  the  year.  It  should  not  be  too  close  to 
the  house,  and  drainage  from  the  bam  should  not  be  toward 
the  house.  It  should  be  a  considerable  distance  from  near-by 
buildings  on  account  of  fire  risk,  but  should  be  near  enough  to 
facilitate  the  doing  of  the  work. 


A  BARN   FOR  A  DAIRY   FARM  167 

4.  —  Is  a  Basement  Bam  Desirable? 

It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  be  able  to  drive  in  with  loads  of 
hay  on  to  the  floor  above  the  dairy  stable.  This  is  a  most  con- 
venient and  economical  arrangement.  It  necessitates  either  build- 
mg  a  long  steep  bridgeway,  to  reach  the  second  floor,  or  placing 
the  bam  against  a  bank  in  such  a  way  that  the  dairy  stable  is 
partially  below  the  general  level  of  the  ground.  Such  a  stable, 
commonly  known  as  a  basement  stable,  provides  very  satisfac- 
tory warmth  for  the  herd  and  is  convenient  in  many  particulars 
if  it  is  well  lighted  and  dry.  The  stable  which  is  entirely  aboye 
the  ground  is  more  difficult  to  keep  warm,  but  more  easily  lighted. 
In  certain  sections  of  New  England,  and  in  the  eastern  part  of 
New  York  State  where  the  hills  are  very  precipitous,  a  common 
type  of  barn  is  one  that  is  placed  against  a  steep  high  bank  in 
such  a  way  that  a  small  amount  of  bridging  makes  it  possible 
to  drive  with  a  load  of  hay  into  the  peak  of  the  barn.  The  hay 
is  then  pitched  off  by  hand  into  deep  bays,  which  often  extend 
thirty  feet  below  the  driveway.  The  unloading  of  hay  in  such 
a  bam  is  easy  and  convenient,  as  the  hay  is  never  pitched  up, 
but  can  be  rolled  from  the  wagon  into  the  mows  below.  These 
bams  are  very  satisfactory  in  regions  where  the  topography  is 
such  that  it  is  possible  to  build  them  economically,  provided  the 
stable  can  be  given  a  sufficient  amount  of  light. 

5.  —  What  Building  Materials  Should  Be  Used  for  the 
Dairy  Bam? 

A  few  bams  have  been  constructed  with  steel  framework. 
These  have  not  become  popular,  however,  and,  on  account  of 
the  high  price  of  steel,  are  not  in  common  use.  Nearly  all  farm 
bams  are  constructed  on  a  wood  framework.  During  recent  years, 
the  plank  frame,  or  the  frame  made  up  of  planks,  has  come  into 
much  more  common  use  than  the  old-fashioned  heayv^  timber 
frame.  The  plank  frame  is  lighter  m  weight,  easier  to  construct, 
easier  to  repair,  and  saves  lumber. 

Most  dairy  barns  are  built  with  storage  space  above  the  dairy 


168  DAIRY   FARiMIXG   PROJECTS 

stable.  In  this  case,  the  stable  wall  may  be  constructed  of  stone^ 
concrete,  wood,  or  a  combination  of  such  materials.  If  the  base- 
ment is  partially  underground,  the  side  which  comes  in  contact 
with  the  soil  must  necessarily  be  built  of  stone  or  concrete.  All 
that  portion  which  is  above  groimd,  however,  or  that  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  soil,  may  be  built  more  economically 
of  wood.  A  common  and  very  satisfactory  method  of  construct- 
ing a  basement  is  to  build  the  side  walls  of  concrete  or  stone  up 
to  the  bottom  of  the  windows;  and  from  this  height  to  the  plate, 
to  build  them  of  wood. 

The  portion  of  the  bam  above  the  basement,  which  is  used  for 
the  storage  of  crops  only,  need  not  be  tightlj^  constructed.  The 
siding  should  not  be  matched,  but  of  ordinary  boards.  If  the 
cracks  between  the  boards  are  too  large,  battens  may  be  used. 
Good  ventilation  between  boards  aids  in  curing  the  hay.  Large 
cracks  or  openings,  however,  admit  rain  and  snow  which  will 
spoil  the  hay. 

6.  —  How  Should  the  Dairy  Stable  Be  Planned? 

The  first  thing  to  decide  in  plamiing  the  dairy  stable  is  whether 
the  cows  should  face  in  or  face  out.  This  is  one  of  the  questions 
that  is  much  discussed  every  year,  and  that  will  probably  never 
be  settled  except  by  the  individual  to  meet  his  particular  needs 
as  he  sees  them.  Some  common  measurements  that  should  he 
used  in  plaiming  the  stable  are  as  follows: 

Each  cow  should  have  a  space  not  less  than  three  feet  wide 
for  small  cows  and  up  to  four  feet  or  more  for  large  Holstcins. 
A  width  of  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  is  very  satis- 
factor}^  dependmg  upon  the  size  of  the  cow. 

The  length  of  the  cow  stall,  that  is,  the  distance  from  the  gutter 
to  the  curb  upon  which  the  stanchions  are  fastened,  should  be 
four  feet  ten  inches,  or  five  feet,  for  Holstems;  four  feet  four 
inches,  or  four  feet  eight  inches,  for  Jerseys;  and  other  lengths 
for  other  breeds  according  to  their  size. 

It  is  very  convenient  to  have  the  platform  where  the  cows 


A  BARN  FOR  A   DAIRY  FARM  169 

stand  vary  considerably  in  width  from  one  end  to  the  other,  so 
that  cows  of  different  lengths,  and  even  yearlings  and  two-year 
olds,  can  be  accommodated  with  platforms  suited  to  their  length 
of  body. 

The  gutter  may  be  from  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  wide.  Four- 
teen inches  is  a  desirable  width.  It  should  be  two  inches  deeper 
on  the  side  next  to  the  cow  platform  than  on  the  side  next  to 
the  alley,  or,  in  other  words,  the  cow  platform  should  be  at  least 
two  inches  higher  than  the  alleyway  directly  behind  the  cow. 
This  makes  the  cows  show  off  better  to  the  prospective  buyer 
or  visitor.  Unless  the  dairyman  expects  to  clean  the  stable  more 
than  once  a  day,  the  gutter  should  not  be  of  a  depth  less  than 
six  inches  on  the  shallow  side.  It  should  also  never  be  more  than 
ten  inches  m  depth  on  that  side.  Both  sides  of  the  gutter  should 
be  perpendicular.  Any  other  shape  is  less  convenient  to  clean 
and  is  not  successful  ordmarily  in  keeping  the  cows  from  stand- 
ing in  the  gutter. 

The  feeding  manger  should  be  from  twenty-four  to  thirty 
inches  in  width.  The  alley  way  in  front  of  the  feeding  manger 
should  be  level  with  the  top  of  the  manger,  if  the  latter  is  built 
entirely  of  concrete,  and  generally  from  six  to  twelve  inches  higher 
than  the  bottom  of  the  manger.  This  arrangement  makes  it 
possible  to  sweep  back  into  the  manger  easily  the  grain,  hay,  or 
ensilage  which  the  cows  throw  out  while  eating. 

All  feeding  alleys  should  be  at  least  four  feet  wide  and  a  width 
of  five  feet  is  more  convenient.  All  driving  alleys  should  be  at 
least  eight  feet  wide.  The  height  of  the  basement  should  never 
be  less  than  seven  and  one-half  feet  in  the  clear  and  never  more 
than  nine  feet.  Too  high  a  basement  is  a  cold  basement;  too 
low  a  basement  may  permit  horses  to  injure  the  tops  of  their 
heads  when  being  driven  through.  If  the  feed  mangers  are  con- 
structed so  that  they  are  water-tight,  it  is  often  convenient  to 
water  the  stock  by  flooding  them. 

The  stable  floor  is  most  durable  and  most  satisfactory  when 
constructed  of  concrete.  Some  dairymen  object,  however,  to 
concrete  for  the  platform  under  the  cows.     A  concrete  surface 


170  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

which  has  been  insulated  by  the  use  of  tar  paper  imbedded 
underneath  makes  a  satisfactory  platform.  Cork  bricks,  though 
rather  expensive,  make  a  very  satisfactory  platform. 

Cow  stanchions  may  be  made  of  steel,  wood,  or  steel  with  wood 
lining.  The  wood  stanchions  or  wood-Uned  stanchions  may  be  a 
little  more  comfortable  for  the  cows.  There  are  many  good 
stanchions  on  the  market.  A  good  one  should  possess  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics:  (1)  It  should  not  be  rigid,  but  should  allow 
the  cow  to  swing  her  head  around  and  lick  her  body.  (2)  It 
should  be  hung  loosely  at  the  bottom  by  means  of  several  links 
of  a  chain  or  in  some  such  way  that  the  cow  may  swing  her 
shoulders  forward  in  getting  up  without  bringing  a  strain  on  the 
rigid  stanchion.  (3)  It  should  open  in  such  a  way  that  when 
opened  it  does  not  easily  swing  out  of  place  or  permit  the 
cow  to  step  through  into  the  manger.  (4)  It  should  be  made  of 
such  material  that  it  will  stand  a  considerable  strain. 

Hay  chutes  and  grain  chutes  should  lead  from  the  haymow 
in  such  a  way  that  feeding  can  be  done  most  economically.  Hay 
chutes  should  be  larger  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top  to  prevent 
plugging,  and  should  never  be  less  than  four  feet  square. 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  having  cows 

with  their  heads  together  and  with  tails  together? 
EW  :  140.     WPD  :  180. 

2.  Make  a  cross-sectional  diagram  of  your  stable,  showing  all 

dimensions.     If  these  are  not  entirely  satisfactory  draw  a 
plan  for  an  economical  rearrangement. 

7.  —  How  Should  the  Silo  Be  Located  and  Built? 

The  most  economical  silo  is  built  of  wood.  Wooden  stave 
silos  are  fairly  cheap,  reasonably  durable,  and  very  satisfactory 
under  nearly  all  chmatic  conditions.  Many  dairymen  who  have 
good  Imnber  on  their  farms  build  homemade  silos.  These  are 
generally  double  boarded  on  the  inside  and  finished  with  rough 
lumber  and  batten  on  the  outside.     The  easiest  shape  to  build 


A  BARN  FOR  A  DAIRY  FARM 


171 


is  square;  but  to  insure  good  settling  of  the  silage  and  the  elimi- 
nation of  air  pockets,  the  corners  should  be  built  across  diagonally. 
Other  kinds  of  silos  are  built  of  concrete,  of  tile,  of  brick,  and  of 
wood  and  plaster.  Where  gravel  is  abundant  and  Portland 
cement  is  reasonable 
in  price,  the  concrete 
silo  is  very  satisfac- 
tory. This  may  be 
made  of  monolithic 
construction,  or 
made  of  cement 
staves  or  cement 
blocks.  It  is  more 
expensive  than  the 
wooden  silo,  and 
when  once  erected, 
if  of  the  monolithic 
type,  cannot  be  re- 
moved. The  hollow 
tile  silo  is  very  satis- 
factory and  very 
ornamental,  but  has 
a  very  high  initial 
cost. 

It  is  highly  im- 
portant that  the  silo 
should  be  properly 
placed   in  respect  to 

the  dairy  stable.  The  silo  should  be  so  located  that  it  is  con- 
venient for  feeding.  A  usual  and  a  very  satisfactory  location  is  to 
place  the  silos  at  one  end  of  the  barn. 

In  constructing  a  silo,  a  pit  should  not  be  dug  below  the  level 
of  the  stable  floor.  The  digging  of  such  a  pit  is  expensive,  and  the 
pit  makes  a  very  unsanitary,  ill-smelling  hole  because  water 
stagnates  and  silage  decays  in  it  during  the  summer. 


Fig.  56.  —  Permanent   monolithic    concrete  silos 
erected  before  starting  the  dairy  barns. 


172 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Inside  diameter  of  silo 
Feet 

Depth  of  silage 
Feet 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

Tons  of 
silage 

Tons  of 
silage 

Tons  of 
silage 

Tons  of 
silage 

Tons  of 
silage 

25 

36 

52 

68 

96 

122 

28 

40 

61 

81 

108 

137 

30 

44- 

68 

90 

115 

150 

32 

50 

72 

95 

126 

162 

34 

53 

77 

108 

142 

171 

36 

57 

82 

114 

158 

194 

Fig.  57a. — Approximate  capacity  of  silos  of  various  sizes. 


Feed  for  180  days 

Feed  for  240  days 

Number  of  cows 

Estimated 
tonnage 
of  silage 

consumed 
Tons 

Size  of  silo 

Estimated 
tonnage 
of  silage 

consumed 
Tons 

Size  of  silo 

Diameter 
Feet 

Height 
Feet' 

Diameter 
Feet 

Height 
Feet 

10 

36 

10 

25 

48 

10 

31 

12 

43 

10 

28 

57 

10 

35 

15 

54 

11 

29 

72 

11 

36 

20 

72 

12 

32 

96 

12 

39 

25 

90 

13 

33 

120 

13 

40 

30 

108 

14 

34 

144 

15 

37 

35 

126 

15 

34 

168 

16 

38 

40 

144 

16 

35 

192 

17 

39 

45 

162 

16 

37 

216 

18 

39 

50 

180 

17 

37 

240 

19 

39 

Fig.  57b. — Relation  of  size  of  silo  to  length  of  feeding  period  and  size  of  herd. 


1.  Where  should  the  silo  be  located  with  respect  to  the  dairy 
stable?     M  :  54. 


2.  How  large  a  silo  do  you  need  for  your  project  herd?     M  :  53. 


A  BARN   FOR  A  DAIRY   FARM  173 

8.  —  How  Should  the  Dairy  and  Ice  Houses  Be 
Located  and  Arranged? 

The  dairy  house  should  be  so  located  that  the  milker  must 
pass  through  two  doors  and  a  fresh-air  space,  and  not  pass  directly 
from  the  dairy  stable  into  the  dairy  house.  The  dairy  house 
should  be  small,  compactly  arranged,  and  should  contain  a  large 
tank  for  cooling  the  cans  of  milk.  This  tank  should  be  at  such 
a  height  and  so  arranged  that  it  is  easy  to  remove  the  cans  from 
it  to  the  wagon.  Other  equipment  of  the  dairy  house  will  depend 
on  the  manner  of  disposing  of  the  milk. 

If  the  farm  is  selling  fluid  milk  or  cream,  or  manufacturing 
any  product,  an  ice  house  is  essential.  However,  good  spring 
water  which  remains  cool  all  summer  may  take  the  place  of  ice. 
An  ice  house  need  not  be  expensive.  The  chief  requisite  in  keep- 
ing ice  is  to  have  it  well  covered  and  insulated  with  sawdust  or 
some  other  material.  The  ice  house  should  be  attached  to  the 
dair}^  house  so  that  ice  may  be  easily  transported  to  the  cool- 
ing tank. 

1.  Visit  a  near-by   dairy   barn  and  obtain  the  following  data: 

Length;  width;  height  of  post  (sill  to  plate);  type  of  roof. 
Draw  a  floor  plan  of  the  stable  showing  arrangement,  depth 
and  width  of  gutter,  width  of  all  alleys,  depth  and  width  of 
manger,  length  of  cow  platform,  width  allowed  for  each  cow. 
Also  show  location  of  silos,  hay  chutes  and  box  stalls.  Study 
methods  of  improving  the  arrangement  and  draw  a  floor  plan 
of  the  rearranged  stable. 

2.  What  is   the   diameter  of  a  round  bam  which  has  the  same 

amount  of  floor  space  as  a  rectangular  barn  36  feet  by  100 
feet?  Compute  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the  outside 
walls  of  each  barn,  if  each  is  28  feet  from  stable  floor  to 
plate. 

3.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  a  good  milk  house? 

V-27  :  3-4. 


174  DAIRY   FARINIING   PROJECTS 

4.  Draw  plans  and  make  up  a  bill  of  materials  for  a  milk  house 

suitable  in  size  for  your  dairy  herd.     ^'-27  :  6-23. 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  different  types  of  ventilators  used  in 

your  region. 

6.  How  many  feet  do  you  travel  from  the  cow  to  the  milk  house 

to  empty  a  pail  of  milk?  How  far  do  you  travel  in  a  year? 
Is  there  any  way  of  shortening  this  amount  of  travel?  How 
much  travel  would  you  save  in  a  year? 

7.  What  are  the  usual  sizes  of  each  of  the  following  timbers  in  barns  of 

your  locality:  rafters,  plate,  purline  plate,  sills,  crossbeams, 
studs? 

8.  How  can  you  tell  a  hewn  timber  from  a  sawed  timber? 

9.  What  kind  of  lumber  is  used  most  commonly  for  barn  framework  in 

your  neighborhood? 

10.  List  five  different  barn  roofing  materials  used  and  find   the  price  of 
each. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

DRYING  UP  THE  COW  AND  CARING  FOR  HER 
BEFORE  AND  DURING  CALVING 

1.  Give  the  cow  a  good  rest  between  lactation  periods 

2.  Be  careful  in  drying  up  the  cow 

3.  Feed  the  cow  liberally  before  calving 

4.  Prevent  trouble  at  calving  time 

5.  Treat  milk  fever  promptly 

1. — Give  the  Dairy  Cow  a  Good  Rest  between  Lactation  Periods 

Every  cow  should  be  dry  for  a  period  of  six  to  eight  weeks  at 
the  end  of  one  lactation  period  before  calving  again.  The  length 
of  time  that  the  cow  should  be  dry  depends  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  her  condition.  If  the  cow  is  in  fairly  good  flesh,  a  six  weeks 
dry  period  is  sufficient.  If  the  cow  is  very  thin,  it  may  be  better 
to  have  her  dry  for  eight  weeks  or  longer.  Some  cows,  of  course, 
dry  up  naturally  three  months  or  more  before  calving.  How- 
ever, this  type  of  cow  as  a  rule  is  not  profitable  to  keep. 
The  profitable  cow  is  such  a  persistent  producer  of  milk  that 
she  will,  if  milked  regularly,  produce  without  stopping  from  the 
birth  of  one  calf  mitil  the  birth  of  the  next.  The  cow  that  is 
not  dry  for  a  short  time  between  lactation  periods  will  produce 
milk  in  the  new  lactation  period  at  a  considerably  lower  level 
than  she  would  otherwise,  and  consequently  will  give  less  milk 
durmg  that  period. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  unborn  calf  makes  the  larger 
part  of  its  growth  during  the  last  two  months  before  birth.  This 
is  a  great  strain  on  the  cow  as  it  means  that  she  must  eat  enough 

175 


17G  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

food  to  maintain  her  own  body  and  also  to  furnish  this  very 
rapid  growth  of  the  unborn  calf.  At  the  same  time,  the  cow 
should  be  storing  up  some  food  in  the  form  of  fat  which  will  be 
used  to  aid  her  to  produce  her  maximum  quantity  of  milk  during 
the  first  few  weeks  after  calving.  If,  in  addition  to  these  other 
necessities,  she  produces  milk,  the  milk  is  usually  obtained  at 
the  expense  of  some  other  activity  of  the  body. 

2.  —  Be  Careful  in  Drying  Up  the  Cow 
The  best  way  to  dry  up  a  cow  is  to  milk  only  once  a  day,  either 
morning  or  night.  After  this  has  been  done  several  days,  milking 
may  be  done  only  on  every  other  day,  and  after  a  few  days  of 
this,  milking  may  be  stopped  entirely.  If  the  cow  is  producing 
more  than  five  or  six  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  you  should  stop  feeding 
her  grain  durmg  the  drying-up  period.  However  it  is  sometimes 
better  simply  to  change  to  a  grain  which  is  low  in  protein;  or 
the  dry  cow  ration  which  is  given  later  m  this  chapter  may  be 
fed  at  this  time. 

There  is  little  danger  in  drying  up  the  cow  in  this  way.  The 
udder  will  fill  slightly  with  milk  for  the  first  few  days  after 
milking  is  stopped.  After  that  the  milk  is  absorbed  and  no 
more  is  produced. 

3.  —  Feed  the  Cow  Liberally  before  Calving 

From  the  time  that  the  cow  is  dried  up  until  the  calf  is  bom, 
she  should  be  fed  liberally.  It  is  necessary  at  this  time  to  furnish 
enough  food  to  grow  the  calf  and  also  enough  food  to  put  the 
cow  in  good  physical  condition.  Grain  fed  when  the  cow  is  dry 
will  give  returns  in  the  milk  pail  after  the  cow  freshens,  just  as 
surely  as  does  the  grain  fed  at  that  later  date.  One  of  the  best 
rations  for  the  dry  cow  is  the  grain  mixture  recommended  for 
young  calves: 

30  pounds  of  corn  meal  or  hominy 

30  pounds  of  wheat  bran 

30  pounds  of  ground  oats 

10  pounds  of  oil  meal 


CARING  FOR  COW  DURING  CALVING  177 

Dairymen  who  are  preparing  pure  bred  cattle  for  Advanced 
Registry  testing  often  vary  this  mixture  by  feeding  much  larger 
quantities  of  oil  meal  and  smaller  quantities  of  ground  oats.  Their 
theory  is  that  ground  oats  produce  a  hard  fat,  and  that  oil  meal 
produces  a  soft  fat.  They  wish  to  obtain  a  soft  fat  which  will 
milk  off  quickly  for  a  seven-day  test  rather  than  a  hard  fat, 
which  will  milk  off  slowly. 

In  regions  where  very  extensive  dairying  is  carried  on,  that  is, 
where  summer  milk  is  produced  only  seven  or  eight  months  of 
the  year,  and  cows  are  dry  four  or  five  months,  the  dry  stock  is 
usually  fed  during  the  dry  period  upon  carbohydrate  feeds  such 
as  hay,  cornstalks,  silage,  etc.  No  grain  is  fed  at  this  time.  Dur- 
ing this  long  dry  period,  the  cow  accumulates  a  very  consider- 
able store  of  food  from  these  cheap  feeds  which  she  is  able  to 
use  up  in  the  production  of  milk  over  a  period  of  several  months 
after  calving.  Within  one  or  two  months  after  calving,  the  cow 
can  generally  be  put  on  pasture  and  her  production  kept  up  by 
highly  favorable  pasture  conditions.  In  this  way  a  large  yield 
of  milk  is  produced  for  a  short  period  of  the  year  at  a  very  small 
expense. 

4.  —  Prevent  Trouble  at  Calving  Time 

The  usual  gestation  period  for  the  dairy  cow  is  two  hundred 
eighty-five  days,  but  there  is  considerable  variation  with  individual 
cows.  For  some  weeks  previous  to  calving,  the  cow's  udder  begins 
to  fill  with  milk,  or,  as  the  dairyman  says,  she  begins  "bagging 
up."  The  length  of  time  over  which  this  takes  place  varies  greatly 
with  individual  cows.  There  is  no  sure  outward  indication  as  to 
the  exact  time  that  the  cow  will  give  birth  to  the  calf.  You  should 
have  complete  breeding  records,  and  by  reference  to  these  should 
be  able  to  estimate  the  probable  date  of  calving  for  each  cow  in 
your  herd.  For  several  days  before  this  date,  be  on  the  lookout 
for  indications.  It  is  always  advisable  to  place  the  cow  in  a  box 
stall  at  calving  time.  In  very  large  herds  where  grade  cows  are 
kept,  it  is  often  impossible  to  do  this,  and  in  the  larger  dairy 


178  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

regions  a  great  many  calves  are  bom  while  the  mothers  are  in 
stanchions.  This  practise  should  never  be  followed  by  the  dairy- 
man who  has  high  producing  cows  or  purebreds.  Plenty  of  box 
stalls  or  pens  should  be  available  at  the  time  of  year  when  most 
of  the  cows  calve.  Some  of  these  may  be  used  for  other  pur- 
poses at  other  times  of  the  year. 

There  is  considerable  discussion  among  dairymen  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  cow  should  be  milked  before  calving.  If  the  udder  is 
very  much  congested,  and  the  cow  is  evidently  suffering  from 
great  distention,  it  may  be  advisable  to  milk  out  the  udder 
partly.  As  a  rule,  however,  this  is  not  a  good  practice.  The 
relief  is  slight,  and  only  temporary,  and  it  increases  the  danger 
of  trouble  at  the  time  of  calving. 

After  calving,  the  cow  is  in  a  weakened  condition  and  should 
be  carefully  handled.  She  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  stall,  and 
her  drinking  water  for  two  days  should  have  the  chill  taken  off 
it,  if  the  weather  is  cold.  The  first  day  after  calving,  no  grain 
should  be  fed  except  a  bran  mash,  made  by  wetting  bran  with 
warm  water.  The  grain  ration  should  be  increased  slowly,  ten 
days  to  two  weeks  being  allowed  to  get  the  cow  on  full  ration. 
If  the  udder  is  swollen  badly,  or  "caked,"  the  grain  ration  should 
be  increased  very  slowly  and  the  cow's  condition  watched  care- 
fully to  see  that  it  does  not  get  worse.  If  the  caked  bag  is  very 
hard,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  rub  it  or  bathe  it  with  some 
hot  solution  at  each  milking  time  to  remove  the  swelling.  Hot 
water  is  very  good  for  this  purpose.  Lard  is  also  good.  Rubbing 
carefully  for  some  length  of  time  with  the  bare  hand  is  generally 
productive  of  good  results.  At  this  time,  the  dairyman  should 
see  to  it  that  he  is  able  to  get  milk  out  of  all  four  quarters.  If 
this  is  possible,  he  need  not  be  alarmed  over  the  congested  udder. 

During  the  first  few  days  after  calving,  there  is  some  danger 
of  milk  fever  in  the  case  of  cows  which  have  produced  calves 
previously.  Heifers,  at  their  first  freshening,  are  never  bothered 
with  this  trouble.  For  the  first  two  days  after  calving,  the  cow 
should  never  be  milked  completely  dry  at  any  milking,  as  a  small 
quantity  of  milk  left  in  the  udder  will  usually  prevent  milk  fever. 


TREATING  COW  FOR  MILK  FEVER  179 


5.  —  Treat  Milk  Fever  Promptly 

Eckles  gives  the  symptoms  of  milk  fever  as  follows: 

The  disease  is  so  typical  that  it  is  easily  recognized.  It  occurs  in  nearly 
every  case  within  48  hours  after  calving,  and  usually  only  after  normal  par- 
turition. Every  cow  liable  to  be  aflfected  should  be  watched  carefully  for 
symptoms  until  the  danger  is  past.  The  first  indications  are  restlessness  and 
excitement  on  the  part  of  the  cow.  Within  a  short  time  paralysis  of  the  hind 
legs  begins,  resulting  in  a  staggering  gait.  The  animal  soon  falls  and  is  unable 
to  rise.  From  this  time  on  the  cow  becomes  unconscious,  and  remains  so 
until  death  occurs  in  from  18  to  48  hours  unless  treated.  The  cow  assumes  a 
characteristic  position,  which  is  of  great  value  in  diagnosing  the  case.  The 
head  is  turned  to  one  side,  and  rests  on  the  chest  with  the  muzzle  pointing 
toward  the  flank.  The  entire  body  is  paralyzed,  making  it  impossible  to  give 
medicine;  but  fortunately  none  is  required. 

Until  the  discovery  of  the  so-called  air  treatment  for  milk  fever, 
this  disease  often  resulted  fatally.  The  air  treatment  is  very  simple, 
and  if  used  in  time  rarely  fails  to  cure.  Every  dairyman  should 
own  and  know  how  to  use  one  of  the  simple  milk  fever  outfits 
for  giving  this  air  treatment.  The  outfit  is  inexpensive.  Its  essen- 
tial parts  and  the  method  of  use  as  described  by  Eckles  are 
as  follows: 

The  essential  parts  are  a  milk  tube,  to  which  is  attached  a  rubber  tube, 
a  receptacle  of  some  kind  in  which  clean  cotton  is  placed  to  catch  the  dust  in 
the  air  as  it  is  pumped  through  it,  and  a  rubber  bulb  or  a  pump  of  some  kind. 
In  case  an  approved  form  of  apparatus  cannot  be  secured,  an  apparatus  can 
be  improvised  that  will  serve  the  purpose.  The  author  has  known  cases 
where  a  common  bicycle  pump  with  a  quill  for  a  milk  tube  was  used  to  save 
the  life  of  a  cow  where  no  better  appliances  could  be  had. 

However,  while  it  is  possible  to  stop  the  milk  fever  by  any  means  that 
makes  it  possible  to  pump  the  udder  full  of  air,  there  is  great  danger  of  intro- 
ducing infection  at  the  same  time  that  will  cause  inflammation  and  possibly 
result  in  the  loss  of  the  cow's  udder. 

In  using  the  milk  fever  apparatus  the  operator  should  first  thoroughly 
clean  his  hands,  likewise  the  cow's  udder  and  teats,  with  warm  water  and  soap, 
followed  by  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  creolin.  That  portion 
of  the  apparatus  which  holds  the  cotton,  the  rubber  tube  leading  to  the  milk 
tube,  hkewise  the  latter,  must  be  clean,  and  preferably  boiled  fifteen  minutes 
before  using,  then  disinfected  by  the  use  of  the  carbolic  acid  or  creolin.  The 
receptacle  for  holding  the  cotton  is  filled  with  ordinary  cotton,  or,  better  still, 
absorbent  cotton,  which  may  be  purchased  from  most  drug  stores.  The  milk 
tube  is  then  inserted  into  one  of  the  teat  openings  without  drawing  what  milk 
is  contained,  and  air  is  pumped  through  the  cotton  into  the  udder.     This  is 


180  DAIRY  FARIMIXG  PROJECTS 

continued  until  the  quarter  is  well  distended  with  air,  when  the  tube  is  care- 
fully withdrawn  and  a  tape  tied  around  the  teat  tight  enough  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  air.  The  same  treatment  is  applied  to  each  quarter.  The  teats 
are  allowed  to  remain  tied.  Ordinarily  within  two  or  three  hours  the  cow 
will  regain  consciousness  and  be  able  to  stand  on  her  feet.  If  the  air  is 
absorbed  or  escapes,  so  the  udder  is  not  tightly  distended,  the  tape  should 
be  removed  and  another  injection  of  air  made  as  before.  Usually  two  injec- 
tions are  all  that  are  required.  The  udder  should  remain  full  of  air  twenty- 
four  hours  at  least,  and  longer  if  any  sign  of  trouble  remains.  The  calf  of 
course  is  not  allowed  to  suck  during  this  time.  If  inflammation  of  the  udder 
follows,  it  shows  sufficient  care  was  not  taken  in  disinfecting  the  apparatus 
used. 

1.  What  quantity  of  average  milk  would  be  required  to  equal  the 

weight  on  a  dry  matter  basis  of  the  average  unborn  calf? 
E:231. 

2.  What  is  the  average  gestation  period  for  the  dairy  cow? 

E  :  232. 

3.  How  may  the  manure  be  used  as  an  index  in  feeding  dairy 

cattle?  W-PD  :  159. 

4.  At  what  stage  of  the  lactation  period  do  cows  ordinarily  give 

the  most  milk?     W-PD  :  162. 

5.  How  should  the  cow  be  treated  in  case  of  retained  afterbirth? 

E  :  234. 

6.  Give  a  detailed  plan  for  the  feeding  of  one  of  your  project  herd 

from  the  time  that  you  start  to  dry  her  up  until  three  weeks 
after  freshening. 

7.  How  long  do  you  plan  to  have  each  of  your  cows  dry  between 

lactation  periods? 

8.  //  you  had  a  herd  of  coivs  lohich  freshened  in  the  spring,  hoii'  would 

you  plan  to  change  them  so  as  to  have  them  freshen  in  the  fall  ? 

9.  Find  the  cost  of  a  milk  fever  outfit. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DEVELOPING  THE  DAIRY  HEIFER 

1.  Feed  the  dairy  heifer  for  economical  development 

2.  Shelter  the  dairy  heifer 

3.  Do  not  breed  the  dairy  heifer  too  young 

4.  Keep  young  stock  free  from  lice  and  diseases 

5.  Prepare  the  heifer  for  milking 


To  produce  the  best  heifer,  you  should  feed  liberal  amounts 
of  sweet  milk  over  a  considerable  period  of  time,  followed  by 


Fig.  58.  —  Ringmaster's  BL 


well  cared  for. 


181 


182  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

skim  milk  for  a  considerable  period  bringing  her  up  to  the  age 
of  at  least  six  months.  From  that  time  on,  the  best  growth  will 
be  obtained  by  feeding  grain  liberally  every  day  in  the  year. 
This  grain  should  be  added  to  pasture  in  summer,  and  to  legu- 
minous hay  and  silage  in  winter.  The  raising  of  a  dairy  heifer 
this  way,  however,  is  costly  and  impractical  for  any  kind  except 
the  most  valuable  of  pure  bred  stock.  Starving  the  heifer,  or 
feeding  her  insufficient  amounts  of  protein,  will  produce  an  un- 
dersized, runty  animal  which  will  never  make  a  large  producer 
and  will  never  bring  a  good  price  in  the  market. 

Somewhere  in  between  the  two  above  extremes  is  the  best 
method  of  raising  the  dairy  heifer.  Extremely  rapid  growth 
produced  by  large  quantities  of  expensive  feed  is  too  costly. 
Feeding  the  calf  too  little,  or  a  lack  of  the  necessary  kind  of  feed, 
may  be  poor  economy  because  it  will  produce  very  poor  quahty. 

The  dairy  heifer  usually  ceases  to  receive  milk  of  any  sort  at 
six  months  of  age.  From  that  time  until  she  freshens  her  develop- 
ment is  at  a  rather  critical  stage. 

1.  —  Feed  the  Dairy  Heifer  for  Economical  Development 

After  a  heifer  is  six  months  old,  if  it  is  the  pasture  season,  she 
may  be  placed  on  good  pasture  and  left  for  the  entire  season 
without  any  supplementary  feed  as  long  as  the  pasture  is  sufficient. 
This  is  the  cheapest  period  in  her  development.  If,  previous  to 
being  placed  on  pasture,  the  heifer  has  been  receiving  both  skim 
milk  and  grain,  do  not  drop  both  of  these  at  once.  The  skim 
milk  should  be  dropped  and  the  grain  continued  for  some  time 
until  the  animal  is  able  to  consmne  a  sufficient  amount  of  pasture 
to  satisfy  its  wants.  Eckles  states  that,  from  the  time  the  animal 
is  ten  months  old,  it  should  be  fed  mostly  on  roughage  of  the 
proper  kind  until  within  two  or  three  months  of  calving  time,  when 
it  is  desirable  to  begin  grain  feeding  again. 

The  quantity  of  grain  which  should  be  fed  depends  largely  on 
the  character  of  the  roughage.  If  the  roughage  consists  of  good, 
palatable  corn  silage  and  leguminous  hay,  a  minimum  amount 


DEVELOPING  THE   DAIRY  HEIFER  183 

of  grain  may  be  fed.  In  this  case,  satisfactory  growth  and  develop- 
ment may  be  obtained  by  feeding  from  two  to  three  pounds  of 
grain  per  day.  The  best  grain  ration  for  this  period  is  the  same 
ration  used  for  raising  the  calf,  and  for  feeding  dry  cows: 

30  pounds  of  corn  meal  or  hominy 
30  pounds  of  ground  oats 
30  pounds  of  wheat  bran 
10  pounds  of  oil  meal 

At  the  University  of  Missouri,  it  was  found  that  animals  that 
were  fed  a  ration  producing  a  heavy  gain  during  the  winter  made 
a  small  gain  during  the  following  summer  on  pasture;  those  that 
made  normal  gains  during  the  winter  made  about  normal  gains 
the  following  summer  on  pasture;  while  those  that  made  gains 
below  normal  during  the  winter  made  larger  gains  during  the 
following  summer  on  pasture,  and  so  compensated  for  their  lack 
of  development  during  the  winter.  If  the  winter,  however,  was 
severe,  the  calves  were  low  in  vitality  in  the  spring,  and  the  sum- 
mer gains  were  not  sufficient  to  make  up  for  this. 

The  best  results  were  obtained  by  keeping  the  animals  in 
normal  growing  condition  throughout  the  year,  that  is,  keeping 
them  in  normal  flesh. 

Animals  will  stand  a  considerable  amount  of  roughing  during 
the  winter  and  will  not  be  injured.  If  they  grow  rather  thin  and 
rangy  during  all  this  time,  they  will  be  growing  a  large  bony 
framework.  If,  however,  the  food  supply  is  so  small  that  the 
animal  is  actually  starved  and  growth  does  not  take  place,  stunt- 
ing may  result.  Feed  your  calves  in  such  a  way  that  the  animals 
will  keep  growthy,  but  will  not  be  given  an  expensive  develop- 
ment of  fat. 

Heavy  feeding  of  a  young  heifer  will  produce  an  earlier  maturity 
than  will  Ught  feeding.  Consequently,  the  heifer  that  has  been 
well  fed  may  be  bred  somewhat  earlier  than  the  one  that  has 
been  lightly  fed. 

This  discussion  of  feeding  covers  only  the  period  up  to  within 
two  or  three  months  before  the  first  calving.    During  those  two 


184  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

or  three  months,  the  heifer  should  be  well  fed,  on  such  a  ration 
as  that  given  in  Chapter  XIV,  Section  3,  so  as  to  prepare  her 
to  produce  a  healthy  calf  and  to  give  a  good  flow  of  milk  through- 
out a  long  lactation  period. 

2  —  Shelter  the  Dairy  Heifer 

It  is  not  necessary,  and  by  many  dairymen  not  deemed  desir- 
able, to  keep  the  dairy  heifer  in  a  warm  stable  throughout  the 
winters  when  she  is  growing.  Such  young  stock  will  ordinarily 
do  fully  as  well  if  allowed  to  run  under  an  open  shed  and  range 
around  a  straw  stack,  as  they  will  if  fastened  in  stanchions  in  a 
warm  barn.  When  they  are  running  loose  in  this  way,  the  labor 
of  caring  for  them  will  be  at  a  minimum.  This  sort  of  care  also 
insures  good  hght,  fresh  air,  and  most  healthful  conditions. 
Animals  kept  in  this  way  will  grow  a  shaggy  and  rough  coat, 
but  will  be  at  all  times  healthy.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  such  animals  should  be  allowed  to  suffer  from  the  cold  or 
be  kept  in  an  exposed  place. 

Some  months  previous  to  calving  for  the  first  time,  these 
heifers  should  be  put  in  stanchions  so  that  they  may  be  fed 
grain  in  more  regular  quantities,  and  so  that  they  will  become 
accustomed  to  being  stanchioned. 

The  dairyman  with  pure  bred  animals  who  expects  to  sell  the 
young  stock  often  finds  it  better  economy  to  keep  the  heifer  in 
a  warm  barn  throughout  the  winter  as  this  keeps  them  in  a 
smooth  condition  and  looking  better  for  the  prospective  pur- 
chaser. 

3.  —  Do  Not  Breed  the  Dairy  Heifer  Too  Young 

The  heifer  should  be  bred  so  that  she  will  freshen  when  between 
two  and  two  and  a  half  years  of  age.  Jerseys  and  Guernseys 
develop  a  little  more  quickly  than  Holsteins  or  Ayrshires,  and 
may  be  bred  younger.  If  a  heifer  is  undersized,  she  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  to  better  size  before  being  bred. 


DEVELOPING  THE   DAIRY  HEIFER  185 

4.  —  Keep  Young  Stock  Free  from  Lice  and  Diseases 

Young  dairy  heifers  should  be  carefully  inspected  several 
times  during  the  season  to  see  that  they  are  not  infested  with 
lice.  Lice  will  prevent  a  well-fed  calf  from  growing  and  develop- 
ing. Parasites  consume  the  energy  furnished  by  a  considerable 
amount  of  feed.     Always  remember  that  when  the  cattle  are 


Fig.  59.  —  Ringmaster's  Britta  of  Brae  Burn.    A  well  grown  and  well  devel- 
oped Ayrshire  heifer. 


lousy,  a  part  of  j^our  feed  bill  goes  to  feed  the  lice  and  brings 
you  no  returns.  Lice  may  be  removed  by  treating  with  the  solu- 
tion described  in  Chapter  XVIIL 

There  are  several  kinds  of  scab,  or  skin  diseases,  which  occasion- 
ally infect  dairy  cattle.  The  young  stock  should  be  watched 
carefully  for  any  such  development.  Some  of  these  are  very  con- 
tagious and  very  difficult  to  control  when  once  they  become 


186  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

established.  For  this  reason,  care  should  l)c  taken  that  they  are 
not  allowed  to  spread  among  the  herd.  These  diseases  may 
generally  be  controlled  by  using  the  same  treatment  as  for  lice. 
In  some  cases,  the  sulphur  ointment  recommended  for  the  treat- 
ment of  ringworm  in  (^hapter  XVIII  produces  very  good  results. 
If  such  skin  diseases  are  obstinate,  and  do  not  respond  to  treat- 
ment, it  is  well  to  consult  the  veterinarian  before  they  become 
spread  through  the  herd. 

Young  cattle  should  be  observed  closely  throughout  their 
growing  period  to  see  that  all  individuals  are  in  a  good,  healthy, 
growing  condition.  If  an  animal  gets  out  of  condition,  is  lifeless, 
thin,  or  has  a  dry  unhealthy  looking  coat,  it  should  be  separated 
at  once  from  the  rest  of  the  stock  and  given  special  attention  to 
get  it  back  into  condition  before  growth  stops  or  before  it  falls 
too  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  herd  in  development. 

5.  —  Prepare  the  Heifer  for  Milking 

The  dairy  heifer  that  has  never  been  handled  is  sometimes 
very  difficult  to  break  to  milk.  If  the  teats  are  tender,  the  udder 
swollen,  and  the  animal  is  a  Uttle  nervous  in  temperament,  it  is 
exceedingly  easy  at  this  time  to  develop  a  kicking  habit  which 
may  persist  throughout  her  life.  Some  months  previous  to  fresh- 
ening, in  fact  as  soon  as  the  heifer  has  been  placed  in  stanchions, 
the  dairyman  should  begin  to  handle  her  carefully  everj'  day. 
She  should  be  accustomed  to  carding  and  brushing  first.  After 
this,  the  dairyman  should  begin  to  manipulate  the  udder  some- 
what and,  as  it  begins  to  bag  up,  to  pull  on  the  teats  and  to  handle 
her  in  much  the  same  way  he  will  later  when  he  begins  to  milk 
her.  If  this  is  done  carefully,  the  heifer  may  generally  be  broken 
to  milk  without  much  trouble  and  with  Uttle  danger  of  a  kicker 
being  developed. 

1.  How  do  you  feed  your  yearling  heifers  through  the  winter? 

2.  How  do  the  better  dairymen  who  keep  grade  stock  in  your 

region  feed  their  young  stock  through  the  winter?     How  is 
the  stock  sheltered? 


DEVELOPING  THE  DAIRY  HEIFER  187 

3.  What  is  the  cost  of  a  good  grade  yearling  heifer  in  the  fall  in 

your  locahty?     Would   this  price   allow  a  good  profit  for 
raising  the  animal? 

4.  Estimate  the  weights  of  twelve  yeariing  heifers  so  situated  that 

they    can    be    weighed    easily.     Find    the    correct   weight. 
Compute  your  per  cent  of  error. 

5.  If  a  heifer  is  born  in  April  and  you  want  her  to  freshen  for  the 

first  time  in  October  at  what  age  will  you  breed  her? 

6.  What  is  a  breeding  rack?     Draw  a  plan  for  one. 

7.  What  was  found  at  the  University  of  Missouri  Experiment 

Station  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  ration  for  dairy  heifers' 

M-l,58:54. 

8.  Are  the  effects  of  different  rations  more  marked  in  differences 

in  weight  or  in  skeletal  growth?     M-15S  :  54. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

KEEP  FARM   ACCOUNTS 

1.  Keep  a  complete  set  of  accounts 

(1)  Take  an  inventory 

(2)  Keep  a  record  of  all  money  paid  out  or  taken  in 

(3)  Keep  a  record  of  all  work  done  by  man  and  horse 

2.  Do  the  daily  work  necessary  to  keep    a   complete  set   of 

accounts 

3.  Classify  all  entries  for  farm  products  and  feed 

4.  Use  common  sense  in  classifying  troublesome  items 

5.  Keep  miscellaneous  notes  with  the  accounts 

6.  Close  the  accounts  at  the  end  of  the  year 

7.  Study  and  interpret  results 

The  farmer  is  a  business  man,  and  to  be  a  successful  farmer  he 
must  follow  modem  successful  business  methods.  In  order  to 
organize  a  good  farm,  you  must  have  such  records  that  you  can 
determine  the  cost  of  production  for  the  various  enterprises,  such 
as  hay,  com,  oats,  and  dairy  cattle.  You  should  also  be  able  to 
determine  the  cost  of  man  labor  and  horse  labor  per  hour  upon 
your  farm.  You  should  likewise  be  able  to  determine  the  relative 
profits  of  the  various  enterprises.  As  a  dairy  farmer,  in  particular, 
you  should  be  able  to  determine  whether  any  particular  cow  of 
your  herd  is  unprofitable;  as  well  as  whether  the  entire  herd  is 
making  a  profit.  All  of  these  may  be  determmed  by  rather  simple 
farm  cost  accounts. 

1.  —  Keep  a  Complete  Set  of  Accounts 

In  order  to  have  a  complete  set  of  farm  accounts,*  three  records 
are  necessary:    an  inventory  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of 

*  Forms  of  tables  and  subject  matter  in  this  chapter  are  taken  from  Farm- 
er's Bulletin,  No.  572. 

188 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  189 

the  year;  an  account  of  all  money  paid  out  or  received;  a  record 
of  all  work  done  by  men  and  horses  during  the  year. 

(1)  Take  an  inventory.  —  Taking  the  inventories  on  an  ordinary 
farm  requires  from  two  to  five  hours'  work  at  the  begiiuiing  and 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  same  inventory,  of  course,  is  used 
for  closing  one  year's  accounts  and  starting  the  next,  so  that  after 
the  first  is  taken  this  work  is  done  only  once  a  year.  The  inventory 
should  be  a  detailed  list,  with  values,  of  the  following:  the  farm, 
subdivided  into  buildmgs  and  land,  each  building  being  listed 
separately,  with  the  number  of  acres  of  land  and  its  value  per 
acre  (the  total  value  of  buildings  and  land  listed  being  equal  to 
the  value  of  the  farm) ;  the  horses,  listed  by  name  and  age,  followed 
by  other  live  stock  listed  separately,  giving  value  per  head;  ma- 
chinery, each  item  being  listed  separately,  except  small  tools, 
which  may  be  bunched  as  one  item;  quantities  of  feed,  produce, 
and  supplies  on  hand ;  growing  crops  (value  of  labor  and  materials 
already  spent  for  their  production);  cash  on  hand  and  in  bank; 
and  bills  receivable.  The  total  of  all  these  should  be  found  and 
the  mortgage  and  bills  payable,  if  any,  subtracted  from  it.  The 
difference  is  what  you  are  worth  above  debts  or  your  present  net 
worth. 

In  estimating  values,  the  market  price  at  the  farm,  or  the  price 
at  the  selling  place  minus  the  cost  of  hauling  to  market,  should 
always  be  the  standard.  The  value  put  upon  anything  should  be 
what  it  is  thought  can  be  obtained  for  it  at  a  normal  sale  and 
should  neither  be  overestimated  nor  underrated.  In  underrating 
or  overrating  you  are  only  fooling  yourself.  It  is  better  to  be 
fair  and  unprejudiced  and  use  your  best  judgment. 

The  table  of  Fig.  60  is  presented  here  as  a  suggestion  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  inventory  may  be  classified  and  summarized 
after  two  inventories  are  completed. 

If  preferred,  the  inventories  may  be  kept  on  separate  pages  in 
the  financial  record  book  and  the  entering  of  inventory  values  to 
the  individual  accounts  may  be  deferred  until  both  inventories 
are  complete  and  the  accounts  are  being  closed  at  the  end  of  the 


190 


DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 


Item 

Mar.  1,  1921 

Mar.  1,  1922 

Farm,  200  acres  (including  buildings) 

Cows: 

20  head  at  $60                     

$8,000 

1,200 

900 

783 

1,100 

110 

97 

75 

$8,000 

15  head  at  $70 

1,050 

Horses,  6                       

850 

Machinery 

800 

850 

Growing  crops  (cost  of  labor  and  materials) 

Cash                    

125 
437 

Bills  receivable                         

95 

$12,265 
3,125 

$12,207 

2,300 

$9,140 

767 

$9,907 

Gain  for  the  year                    

$9,907 

$9,907 

Fig. 


-A  sample  summary  of  an  inventory.       In  the  complete  inventory 
each  cow,  horse,  and  machine  is  hsted  separately. 


year.  The  method  of  entering  these  amoimts  is  given  in  Section 
6  of  this  chapter. 

No  other  account  will  give  so  much  information  for  the  time  and 
labor  expended  as  the  annual  inventory.  By  comparmg  the  net 
worth  as  shown  by  the  current  inventory  with  the  net  worth 
shown  by  that  of  the  previous  year,  you  can  tell  whether  you  have 
made  a  gain  or  loss  and  how  much,  after  paying  from  farm  receipts 
what  you  have  expended  for  living  expenses. 

If  money  has  been  added  to  or  taken  from  the  business  by  gifts 
or  by  transfer  from  or  to  some  other  business,  and  these  items 
arc  not  included  in  the  inventory,  such  items  will  have  to  be 
known  in  order  to  tell  the  gain  or  loss.  List  all  your  property  in 
the  inventory,  so  that  there  is  no  chance  for  such  an  error.  You 
may  have  only  a  small  amount  of  cash  on  hand,  as  the  gain  may 
all  be  invested  in  a  new  team,  additional  cows,  or  extra  feed.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  cash  on  hand  may  be  much  larger  than  the 
year  before,  thus  making  you  feel  more  prosperous,  whereas  the 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  191 

number  of  head  of  stock  or  the  quantity  of  feed  on  hand  may  be 
so  much  less  that  you  have  actually  farmed  at  a  loss  for  a  year. 

The  yearly  inventory  shows  the  annual  gain  or  loss  on  the  farm 
business,  but  it  does  not  show  what  crops  or  what  animals  have 
made  a  gain  or  loss.  On  nearly  every  farm  where  accounts  have 
been  kept,  the  gain  or  loss  for  the  year  resulted  from  losses  on 
several  accounts  and  gains  on  several  accounts.  In  every  case 
the  farmer  was  much  surprised  to  see  which  accounts  showed  a 
gain  and  which  a  loss.  Results  like  these  can  only  be  shown  by 
a  complete  system  of  accounts. 

(2)  Keep  a  record  of  all  money  paid  out  or  taken  in. — A  record 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  on  the  farm  is  necessary  for  a 
complete  set  of  accounts.  For  this  purpose  a  book  called  by 
stationers  a  "broad  daybook,"  or  "journal,"  is  used.  The  require- 
ments are  that  there  be  a  place  for  a  date  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  page,  a  broad  space  in  the  middle  of  the  page  in  which 
to  write  items,  and  columns  ruled  for  dollars  and  cents  at  the 
right.  The  page  is  ruled  and  the  items  are  entered  as  shown  in 
the  sample  account  with  potatoes  in  the  table  of  Fig.  61.  The 
financial  record  book  at  the  end  of  the  year  becomes  the  completed 
account  book  and  will  have  a  summary  of  labor  entered  in  it  from 
the  work  record  as  described  later. 

A  separate  account  is  kept  with  real  estate,  with  each  crop 
grown,  with  each  class  of  animals,  with  machinery,  labor,  interest, 
persons  dealt  with,  bills  payable  and  bills  receivable,  and  such 
other  accounts  are  opened  as  may  be  found  necessary  or  con- 
venient. 

The  items  that  make  up  bills  payable  and  bills  receivable  should 
be  listed  in  the  inventory  at  the  end  of  the  year,  either  from 
memoranda  or  from  some  other  convenient  source.  In  closing 
the  inventory  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  items  for  which  money 
is  due,  or  owing,  should  be  charged  or  credited  to  their  respective 
accounts.  When  these  bills  are  settled,  during  the  early  part  of 
the  following  year,  the  entries  should  be  made  under  bills  pay- 
able or  bills  receivable,  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  this  book  two  pages  facing  each  other  are  taken  for  each 


192 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


account.  The  name  of  the  account  is  written  at  the  top  of  each 
page.  The  right-hand  page  is  marked  "Credits"  and  is  used  only 
to  record  credits  to  the  account.  The  left-hand  page  is  marked 
"Charges"  and  is  used  only  for  charges  against  the  account. 
The  pages  then  appear  as  shown  in  the  following  sample  account 
with  a  crop  of  potatoes  in  Fig.  61. 


Charges 


June  3 
4 
10 
11 

July  12 
15 


Date  of 
closing 
books. 


Seed,  160  bushels  at  $1.... 
Corrosive  sublimate,  3  ozs . 
Seed,  43 J  bushels  at  $1.10.  . 
Corrosive  sublimate,  6  ozs. 

Paris  green,  6  pounds 

Lead  arsenate,  160  pounds, 


Use  of  land  at  5  per  cent  on 

$100  per  acre 

Man    labor,    796    hours    at 

$0.282 

Horse  labor,   839   hours   at 

$0.1846 

Equipment   use,  839   hours 

at  $0.035 

Manure,  30  per  cent  of  1916 

application 

Manure,  40  per  cent  of  1917 

application 


Total  charges. 


$160.00 

.60 

48.13 

1.20 

3.00 

25.60 


70.00 
224.47 
154.88 

29.36 
6.00 

12.00 


$735.24 
5.36.81 


Date  of 
closing 
books. 


Sold  226  bushels  at  $1.05. 
Sold  510  bushels  at  $1.15. 
Sold  241  bushels  at  $1.25, 

Saved  for  seed  135  bushels 
at  $1.00 

Saved  for  home  use,  16 
bushels  at  75  cents. . . 


Total  credits . , 
Total  charges. 


$237.30 
586.50 
301.25 


135.00 
12.00 


$1,272.05 
735.24 


Fig.  61. — Sample  account  with  potatoes. 


Now,  suppose  that  on  a  trip  to  town  on  June  1  one  spends 
$1.40  for  horseshoeing,  $3  for  fencing,  $5  for  cow  feed,  and  receives 
a  $65  check  for  milk.  The  entries  are  made  as  follows:  Turn  to 
the  account  marked  "Horses"  and  on  the  left-hand  page  enter 
"June  1 — Shoeing,  $1.40."  Turn  to  the  "Real  Estate"  account 
and  on  the  left-hand  page  enter  "June  1 — Fencing,  $3."  Turn 
to  the  "Cow"  account  and  on  the  left-hand  page  enter  "June  1 
— Cow  feed,  $5."  On  the  right-hand  page,  under  this  same  ac- 
count, credit,  "June  1 — Milk,  3000  pounds,  $65." 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  193 

These  entries  are  now  complete;  they  will  never  have  to  be 
posted  or  entered  again  in  any  way.  It  is  often  advisable  to  keep 
a  memorandum  book  in  the  pocket  in  which  to  make  notes  when 
money  is  paid  out  in  town,  so  that  the  items  will  not  be  forgotten 
before  they  can  be  entered  in  the  account  book. 

Whenever  money  is  paid  out,  turn  to  the  account  in  the  book 
to  which  this  money  should  be  charged,  and  enter  it  on  the  left- 
hand  page.  Whenever  money  is  received  credit  the  amount  to 
the  proper  account  by  entering  it  on  the  right-hand  page  under 
that  heading.  These  are  the  only  entries  made.  The  amounts  are 
charged  or  credited  directly  to  the  accounts  to  which  they  belong. 

Finding  the  account  wanted  is  made  much  easier  by  indexing 
the  books  in  the  following  manner:  Take  a  piece  of  adhesive 
tape  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long,  bend  it  double,  and 
stick  it  on  the  edge  of  the  page  in  such  a  manner  that  it  projects 
about  one-half  inch.  On  this  projection  write  the  name  of  the 
account  kept  on  that  page.  Put  a  piece  of  tape  on  each  account, 
arranging  them  one  below  the  other  along  the  edge  of  the  book 
so  that  all  can  be  seen  at  the  same  time.  Tabs  suitable  for  this 
purpose  can  be  purchased  from  most  stationers. 

(3)  Keep  a  record  of  all  work  done  by  man  and  horse.  —  For 
the  work  record,  a  book,  ruled  exactly  like  the  financial  record 
book,  except  that  there  should  be  double-entry  columns  at  the 
right  of  the  page,  may  be  used.  This  should  be  indexed  in  the 
manner  already  described.  In  this  book  no  separate  pages  are 
used  for  charges  and  credits  and  no  entries  are  made  in  terms  of 
dollars  and  cents.  In  the  first  double  column  at  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  page  are  entered  man  hours  and  minutes,  and  in  the 
second  are  written  horse  hours  and  minutes.  These  headings 
should  be  placed  at  the  top  of  each  column,  so  that  the  page 
appears  as  shown  in  the  following  Fig.  62.  This  book  contains 
simply  a  record  of  the  work  done  on  the  farm  during  the  year, 
classified  according  to  the  enterprise  for  which  it  was  done,  and 
it  also  gives  the  date  and  number  of  hours  of  each  operation. 

Suppose  that  the  date  is  May  1.  The  work  done  on  this  day 
aside  from  chores  was  driUing  in  oats  6  hours,  with  2  horses; 


194 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Operation 

Man 

Horse 

1921 

Hours 

Minutes 

Hours 

Minutes 

Aug.  2 

Plowing  oats  stubble 

Rolling 

8 

1 

30 

45 

17 

3 

30 

Horse  hours  are  expressed  in  terms  of  one  horse  for  one  hour.      Hours  of  horse  labor 
should  not  be  charged  against  the  horse  account. 

Fig.  62. — A  sample  work  record  with  wheat. 

plowing  for  corn  8  hours,  with  3  horses;  repairing  plow,  2  hours 
of  man  labor  alone.  The  entries  are  made  as  follows :  The  "Oats" 
account  is  turned  to,  "May  1"  written  in  the  left-hand  column, 
the  single  word  "Drilling"  written  in  the  broad  space  in  the 
middle  of  the  page,  and  the  figure  "6"  entered  under  man  hours. 
Since  2  horses  were  used  for  6  hours,  the  figure  "12"  should  be 
entered  under  horse  hours.  In  the  same  way,  on  turning  to  the 
"Corn"  account,  "May  1 — Plowing,  8  (under  man  hours),  and 
24  (under  horse  hours)"  are  entered.  Turning  to  the  "Machinery" 
account,  "May  1 — Repairing  plow,  2  (under  man  hours)"  is 
entered.  When  this  is  done,  the  work  entry  for  the  day  is  com- 
plete; it  will  never  have  to  be  posted  or  written  again.  The  original 
entry  is  the  only  entry  made. 

For  chores  a  special  page  should  be  ruled  for  each  month,  as 
shown  in  the  following  Fig.  63. 


Horses 

Cows 

Poultry 

Hogs 

1921 

Hours 

Minutes 

Hours 

Minutes 

Hours 

Minutes 

Hours 

Minutes 

May  I 

2 

3 

4 

etc 

2 

20 

4 

15 

30 

1 

10 

If  horses  are  used  in  the  chore  work,  extra  columns  must  be  ruled  under  each  heading 
to  provide  a  place  for  the  entry  of  hours  and  minutes  of  horse  labor. 

Fig.  63. — A  sample  heading  for  a  page  of  an  account  book  showing  the  special 
ruling  required  for  entering  chores. 


KEEP  FARM   ACCOUNTS 


195 


rt  IS  more  accurate  to  enter  the  chores  every  day;  but,  if  chore 
time  is  fairly  uniform  each  day,  so  that  the  chore  work  for  the 
entire  month  can  be  based  on  fewer  entries,  an  entry  at  the 
beginning,  at  the  middle,  and  at  the  end  of  the  month  will  or- 
dinarily be  sufficient.  Entries  should  be  made  at  other  times,  if 
the  time  spent  on  chores  changes;  for  instance,  when  the  cows 
are  turned  to  pasture,  when  additional  cows  freshen,  or  when  a 
change  of  feed  is  made  which  will  require  more  time  or  less  time 
for  chore  work. 


2. 


Do  the  Daily  Work  Necessary  to  Keep  a  Complete  Set 
of  Accounts 


The  daily  work  of  keeping  a  complete  set  of  accounts  ordinarily 
consists  in  entering  receipts  and  expenses  for  that  day  and  record- 
ing the  hours  of  work  done.  On  many  days  there  are  no  cash 
receipts  or  expenses,  as  these  are  likely  to  be  bunched  on  the  days 
when  trips  are  made  to  town.  An  actual  day's  entries  made  by 
one  farmer  are  here  shown  in  Fig.  64. 


July  23 


Cultivating  corn . 

Cutting  hay 

Making  hay 


Sold  eggs,  5  dozen  at  45  cents . . .  . 
Paid  veterinary  for  visit  to  horse . 
Paid  extra  hand,  5  days  at  |3.  .  .  . 


Man 
hours 

Horse 
hours 

5 
3 
2 

10 
6 
2 

$2.25 


$3.00 
15.00 


Fig.  64. — A  farmer's  entries  for  a  day. 


The  entry  of  these  items  with  the  filling  of  the  chore  blanks  for 
that  day,  if  necessary,  should  not  take  more  than  five  minutes. 
3,  —  Classify  All  Entries  for  Farm  Products  and  Feed 

Entries  of  the  value  of  all  home-grown  feeds  consumed  must  be 
made  in  the  live  stock  accounts.  All  the  feed  bought  must  be 
charged  in  the  financial  record  book  directly  against  the  animals 


196  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

for  which  it  was  bought.  If  the  hog  feed  runs  out  some  day  and 
a  bag  of  cow  feed  is  taken  to  the  hogs,  make  the  entries  in  the 
financial  record  book  just  as  if  the  cows  had  sold  this  feed  and 
the  hogs  had  bought  it. 

At  the  time  of  threshing  and  at  the  close  of  haying,  the  total 
crop  may  be  entered  as  a  memorandum  on  the  credit  side  of  the 
proper  crop  account,  but  the  figures  are  not  yet  to  be  carried  to 
the  money  column.  Estimates  can  be  made  with  fair  accuracy 
by  measuring  bins  and  haymows,  or  by  counting  the  loads  drawn 
and  estimating  the  average  weight.  The  values  will  be  entered 
when  the  product  is  sold  or  transferred  to  the  animals.  When 
these  crops  are  used,  an  estimate  must  be  made  of  the  proportion 
fed  to  cows,  horses,  and  other  stock;  and  these  accounts  charged 
with  the  values  thereof,  credit  being  given  the  crops.  The  quantity 
sold  will  be  known  from  weight  bills  or  otherwise,  and  it  should 
be  credited  as  a  cash  receipt. 

Whenever  grain  or  hay  is  fed  from  the  same  bin  or  mow  to  two 
or  more  classes  of  animals,  a  day's  rations  for  each  class  of  animals 
may  be  weighed  or  measured  once  a  month  or  oftener  and  the 
proper  proportion  of  the  total  feed,  based  on  these  weighings  and 
the  number  of  days  fed,  charged  to  each  kind  of  stock.  Tliis 
method  will  give  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  if  weights  are 
taken  fairly  often.  When  cows  and  horses  are  fed  from  separate 
haymows,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  feed  account 
separate.  Where  concentrates  are  purchased  in  large  quantities 
and  fed  to  several  classes  of  animals,  a  record  may  be  kept  in  the 
feed  room  of  the  number  of  sacks  fed  to  each  class. 

4.  —  Use  Conimon  Sense  in  Classifying  Troublesome 
Items 

The  entry  of  some  items  will  be  confusing  to  the  beginner. 
Generally  common  sense  will  straighten  him  out,  if  he  will  ask 
himself,  "What  account  really  deserves  this  credit?"  or,  "What 
account  really  ought  to  stand  this  charge?" 

The  real  estate  and  the  machinery  accounts  usually  puzzle  the 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  197 

beginner  in  keeping  farm  records.  The  former  is  more  or  less  a 
general  account  in  the  financial  book  and  work  record.  All  items 
for  fencing,  ditching,  improvements,  repair  of  buildings,  removal 
of  old  fences,  new  buildings,  taxes,  and  insurance  should  be  charged 
to  this  account.  Many  of  these  are  somewhat  permanent  and  are 
charges  which  the  landlord  ordinarily  pays  on  farms  leased  on 
share  rental.  This  account  should  be  credited  with  any  receipts 
from  land  rented  out,  old  buildings  sold,  stone  sold,  and  other 
similar  items.  If  any  special  improvement  is  made,  such  as  when 
a  line  of  tile  is  laid,  a  building  put  up,  or  a  silo  built,  a  separate 
account  may  be  opened  with  it,  if  so  desired.  When  complete, 
the  cost  should  be  figured  and  this  amount  charged  against  the 
real  estate  account  as  an  improvement. 

Against  the  machinery  account,  charge  all  costs  of  repairs  to 
machinery  and  tools,  all  harness  items,  and  the  purchase  of  new 
implements  or  tools.  This  account  should  be  credited  with  all 
receipts  from  sales  of  old  machinery  or  machinery  rented  to 
neighbors.  Under  the  work  on  machinery  will  be  entered  "Get- 
ting new  plow  points,"  "Repairing  roller,"  "Storing  away  ma- 
chinery," "Making  new  whiffletrees,"  and  other  similar  items. 

Such  work  as  manuring  may  be  charged  against  the  crop  to 
which  it  is  applied,  or  an  account  may  be  kept  with  manure,  and 
the  total  cost  of  manure,  including  the  cost  of  hauling,  may  be 
distributed  to  the  different  crops  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

In  this  system  no  account  is  kept  with  "General  expense." 
Nearly  all  items  of  this  kind  can  be  distributed  as  they  occur. 
For  instance,  if  a  telephone  is  kept  for  the  purpose  of  directing 
the  hired  man,  the  expense  is  charged  directly  to  the  labor  account. 
If  the  telephone  is  kept  for  personal  and  general  farm  use,  it  may 
be  charged  partly  to  the  personal  and  partly  to  the  real  estate 
account.  Such  items  as  postage  stamps,  if  small,  may  be  charged 
to  the  farm  account,  but  if  a  large  number  are  used  for  one  enter- 
prise some  of  the  purchases  may  be  charged  to  this  one  enterprise. 
It  is  nearly  always  possible  to  scatter  the  charges  to  different 
accounts  as  they  occur.  A  general  expense  account,  if  found  to 
be  necessary,  should  be  kept  very  small. 


198  DAIRY  FARMIXG   PROJECTS 

5.  —  Keep  Miscellaneous  Notes  with  the  Accounts 

There  are  many  miscellaneous  notes  which  it  is  desirable  to 
keep  in  the  same  book  with  the  accounts.  Following  are  some  of 
the  entries  which  have  been  inserted  by  farmers  and  which  are 
especially  handy  for  later  use.  Sometimes  they  are  merely  written 
on  the  page  where  they  seem  to  belong;  at  other  times  they  are 
kept  by  themsslves  in  the  back  of  the  book:  date  of  "last  kilUng 
frost  in  spring";  date  of  "first  kilUng  frost  in  fall";  date  of  "death 
of  horse  or  cow";  "height  of  hay  or  ensilage  at  a  certain  date." 

Other  miscellaneous  records  may  be  kept,  such  as  herd  records, 
maps  of  ditches,  and  maps  of  the  farm,  showing  the  crops  for  each 
year.  These  are  not  necessary  in  connection  with  the  cost  ac- 
counting but  may  ])e  kept  if  the  farmer  desires,  and  they  will 
often  prove  useful. 

6.  —  Close  the  Accoimts  at  the  End  of  the  Year 

Considerable  time  is  required  to  close  the  set  of  accounts. 
However,  this  figuring  should  come  in  the  winter  at  a  time  when 
other  work  is  usually  slack  and  when  the  weather  is  more  favorable 
for  working  indoors  than  out.  Project  accounts  in  school  work 
may  be  closed  on  agreed  upon  dates.  A  definite  order  should 
be  adhered  to  in  closing  the  accounts.  This  order  should  be  as 
follows : 

(1)  The  first  step  is  to  take  a  final  inventory  in  the  same  manner 
as  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  This  inventory  should  include 
all  bills  that  other  persons  owe  the  farmer  and  all  bills  which  the 
farmer  owes  to  other  persons. 

(2)  The  list  of  bills  payable  should  be  inspected  and  any  items 
that  have  not  yet  been  charged  should  be  charged  to  the  proper 
accounts.  For  instance,  if  $15  for  labor  is  still  due  the  hired  man 
at  the  date  of  closing,  this  item  should  be  entered  as  a  charge 
against  labor. 

(3)  The  list  of  bills  receivable  should  be  inspected,  and  any 
items  that  have  not  yet  been  credited  should  be  credited  to  the 
proper  accounts.     For  instance,  if  the  creamery  owes  the  farmer 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  199 

$65  for  milk  and  a  neighbor  owes  liim  for  some  feed,  the  $65 
should  be  entered  as  a  credit  to  the  cow  account  and  the  feed 
item  should  be  entered  as  a  credit  to  the  account  from  which  the 
feed  was  originally  taken. 

(4)  The  record  of  all  feed  transferred  to  the  live  stock  should 
be  completed,  charging  the  various  animals  and  crediting  the 
various  crops.  Produce  raised  and  fed  should  be  charged  against 
the  animals  at  what  it  is  worth  on  the  farm.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
that  there  were  80  acres  of  hay  with  a  total  yield  of  120  tons 
(20  tons  of  which  had  been  sold  and  a  credit  entered)  and  that 
the  feed-disposal  memorandum  showed  60  tons  fed  to  the  cows 
and  15  tons  fed  to  the  horses,  and  25  tons  left  on  hand.  If  hay 
is  worth  $12  per  ton  at  the  barn,  the  hay  should  be  credited  by 
entering  on  the  right-hand  page  of  the  hay  account  "60  tons  to 
cows  @  $12  =  $720;  15  tons  to  horses  @  $12  =  $180."  Now, 
charges  against  the  cows  of  "60  tons  of  hay  @  $12"  and  against 
the  horses  of  "15  tons  (w,  $12"  should  be  made.  When  the  value 
of  the  hay  on  hand,  25  tons  at  $12,  as  shown  in  the  record  inven- 
tory, is  entered  as  a  credit  to  the  hay  account,  the  credits  to  this 
account  will  be  complete. 

(5)  The  various  classes  of  live  stock  should  be  credited  with 
the  portion  of  unused  feeds  which  were  charged  to  them  at  the 
time  of  purchase  or  harvest.  These  farm  items  will,  of  course, 
appear  in  the  second  inventory  under  the  group  headed,  "Feeds, 
produce,  and  supplies." 

(6)  The  use  of  pasture  should  be  credited  directly  to  the  real 
estate,  or  to  a  pasture  account,  and  charged  against  the  animals 
using  it.  The  amount  charged  for  pasture  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  market  price;  that  is,  the  price  for  which  pasture 
rents  in  that  locality. 

(7)  The  value  of  produce  used  in  the  house,  if  not  noted  before, 
should  be  entered.  The  proper  crops  or  animals  should  be  credited 
and  charges  should  be  made  against  the  personal  account.  This 
item  includes  estimates  of  the  quantities  of  milk,  eggs,  potatoes, 
and  other  products  used  by  the  family. 

(8)  The  entry  of  value  of  board,  produce,  or  other  allowances 


200  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

furnished  to  the  laborers  should  be  completed.     These  charges 
should  be  made  against  labor  and  the  proper  accounts  credited. 

(9)  The  value  of  unpaid  labor,  such  as  work  by  the  farmer 
himself,  by  boys  in  the  family  to  whom  regular  wages  are  not 
paid,  and  milking  or  other  farm  work  by  women  of  the  family, 
should  be  entered.  Make  these  charges  against  labor  and  credit 
the  personal  account. 

(10)  The  animals  should  be  credited  with  the  value  of  the 
manure  produced  and  this  amount  charged  against  the  crops  to 
which  it  was  appUed.  The  valuation  of  the  manure  should  be 
made  at  about  the  market  price  at  the  farm.  To  find  the  quantity 
produced,  a  record  should  be  kept  of  the  number  of  loads  hauled 
to  the  fields. 

(11)  The  proper  amounts  for  the  use  of  the  buildings  by  crops, 
animals,  the  farmer,  or  laborers  should  be  entered.  Each  crop, 
each  class  of  animals,  the  personal  account,  and  the  labor  account 
should  be  charged  with  its  proper  proportion  and  these  amounts 
should  be  credited  to  the  real  estate  account.  As  a  general  rule, 
8  to  10  per  cent  of  the  current  value  of  the  buildings  may  be 
charged  as  rent.  The  proportion  of  the  whole  sum  which  each 
class  of  animals  or  each  crop  should  pay  will  have  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  farmer  in  proportion  to  the  amount  and  value  of 
the  space  occupied  by  each.  Charges  for  the  use  of  the  buildings 
on  one  farm  were  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  65. 

(12)  Taxes  and  insurance  paid  on  personal  property  should  be 
distributed  to  the  proper  accounts.  All  land  taxes  are  charged 
to  the  real  estate  account  and  distributed  as  part  of  the  "Use 
of  land  and  buildings." 

(13)  All  the  hours  and  minutes  of  man  labor  on  each  enterprise, 
including  the  chores,  should  be  added  up,  these  totals  brought 
together  and  the  sum  of  the  man  hours  on  all  enterprises  found. 

(14)  The  total  cost  of  man  labor  for  the  year  should  be  found. 

(15)  The  rate  per  hour  should  be  found  by  dividing  the  total 
cost  of  man  labor  by  the  total  hours  of  man  labor. 

(16)  The  total  number  of  hours  charged  against  each  enter- 
prise in  the  work  record  should  be  transferred  to  each  account 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS 


'201 


Account  to  be  charged 

Per  cent 
of  total 
charge 

Amount 

Cows 

30 
20 

5 
10 

5 
10 
20 

$60 

Horses     

40 

Hogs                                                       

10 

Machinery 

20 

Corn                        .                

10 

Oats 

20 

Hav            

40 

Total.. 

100 

1200 

Fig.  05. — Distribution  of  annual  charge  for  use  of  buildings  (Barns:    Value, 
$2,000;  use  for  year  at  10  per  cent,  S200). 


in  the  financial  record,  multiplying  each  total  by  the  rate  to  obtain 
the  cost.  These  items  should  be  credited  to  labor  in  the  financial 
record  book.  When  this  is  completed,  the  labor  account  should 
balance  within  a  few  dollars,  though  if  the  rate  per  hour  were 
carried  out  in  full  to  the  last  decimal  place  the  account  would 
balance.  A  difference  of  one  mill  in  the  rate  for  6,000  hours  would 
make  a  difference  of  six  dollars.  This  difference,  or  error,  is  not 
important  enough  to  consider.  It  may  be  carried  to  the  "Loss 
and  Gain"  account,  or  it  may  be  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
one  of  the  larger  items  of  labor,  in  accordance  with  whether  it 
is  a  loss  or  a  gain. 

(17)  All  the  hours  and  minutes  of  horse  labor  spent  on  each 
enterprise,  including  any  horse  labor  on  chores,  should  be  added 
up,  the  totals  brought  together  and  the  sum  of  the  horse  hours 
on  all  enterprises  found,  just  as  was  done  for  man  labor. 

(18)  To  find  the  total  cost  of  horse  labor,  the  horse  inventories 
should  be  entered,  the  first  inventory  as  a  charge  and  the  second 
as  a  credit  to  the  horses.  Then  the  horses  should  be  charged  with 
interest  on  the  average  of  the  two  inventories  at  the  current  rate 
in  the  section  and  the  interest  account  credited.  The  ordinary 
rate  charged  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  is  5  or  6  per 
cent  on  the  investment. 


202  DAIRY   FARMIXG   PROJECTS 

(19)  The  sum  of  each  side  of  the  horse  account  should  be 
found.  The  sum  of  the  credits  should  be  subtracted  from  the 
sum  of  the  charges  and  the  difference  will  be  the  net  cost  of  horse 
labor  for  the  year.  No  charge  is  made  against  horses  for  the  use 
of  the  harness  and  other  horse  equipment,  all  these  costs  being 
charged  against  the  various  enterprises  in  the  machinery  charge, 
as  hereafter  explained,  on  the  basis  of  horse  hours. 

(20)  The  rate  per  hour  of  horse  labor  should  be  found  by 
dividing  the  total  cost  by  the  total  hours.  The  figure  thus  obtained 
is  the  rate  per  hour. 

(21)  The  total  number  of  horse  hours  charged  against  each 
enterprise  in  the  work  record  should  be  transferred  to  the  same 
accounts  in  the  financial  record,  multiplying  each  total  by  the 
rate  per  hour  to  obtain  the  cost.  These  items  should  be  credited 
to  the  horse  account  in  the  financial  record  book.  When  this  is 
completed,  the  horse  account  should  l^alance  within  a  few  dollars. 
The  difference  cm  be  added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  one  of  the 
larger  items,  or  carried  to  the  "Loss  and  Gain"  account,  as 
stated  in  paragraph  (16). 

(22)  To  find  the  use  cost  of  the  machinery,  the  first  machinery 
inventory  should  be  entered  as  a  charge,  and  the  second  as  a 
credit,  to  the  machinery  account;  then  this  account  should  be 
charged  with  interest  on  the  average  of  the  two  inventories,  as 
directed  for  the  horse  account.  The  interest  account  should  be 
credited  with  the  amount  of  this  interest. 

(23)  The  sum  of  each  side  of  the  machinery  account  should 
be  found  and  the  credit  total  subtracted  from  the  charge  total, 
the  same  as  for  the  horse  account.  The  difference  is  the  total 
use  cost  of  the  machinery  for  the  year. 

(24)  In  order  to  distribute  this  cost,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
for  every  hour  horses  were  worked  machinery  was  also  used. 
Then  each  account  will  have  charged  against  it  the  same  number 
of  machinery  hours  as  horse  hours.  To  find  the  rate  of  cost  per 
machinery  hour,  the  horse  hours  already  charged  to  machinery 
should  be  first  subtracted  from  the  total  hours  of  horse  labor  and 
the  total  cost  of  machinery  use  divided  by  this  difference.    Now 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  203 

the  use  of  machinery  for  the  year  should  be  charged  in  the  same 
way  that  the  use  of  horses  was  charged,  except  the  charge  against 
machinery.  When  this  is  complete,  the  machinery  account  should 
balance  within  a  few  dollars.  The  difference  may  be  treated  as 
explained  in  paragraph  (16). 

(25)  Any  other  accounts  of  convenience,  such  as  those  for 
fertilizer,  or  manure,  if  kept,  should  be  distributed. 

(26)  All  the  remaining  items  should  be  entered  in  the  inven- 
tories. The  inventory  values  for  the  beginning  of  the  year  should 
be  entered  on  the  left-hand  page  of  the  separate  accounts  as  a 
charge;  that  is,  the  cow  mventory  should  be  entered  on  the 
left-hand  page  of  the  cow  account,  the  hog  inventory  should  be 
entered  on  the  left-hand  page  of  the  hog  account,  and  the  others 
distributed  in  the  same  manner.  The  final  inventory  for  the 
year  should  likewise  be  distributed  to  the  separate  accounts,  but 
the  items  should  be  entered  on  the  right-hand  pages  of  their 
respective  accounts. 

(27)  The  interest  against  all  accounts,  based  on  the  average 
inventories,  not  already  charged,  should  be  charged  and  the 
interest  account  credited  with  the  total,  using  the  same  rate  as 
that  used  in  charging  interest  against  the  horse  and  machinery 
account. 

(28)  The  proper  charge  for  the  use  of  the  land  should  be 
entered.  The  rate  should  be  high  enough  so  that,  with  the  use 
of  buildings  as  charged  in  paragraph  (11),  it  will  cover  interest 
on  the  investment  in  land  and  buildings,  taxes  on  real  estate, 
and  repairs  to  buildings  and  fences,  for  these  items  were  charged 
to  the  real  estate  account.  Each  crop  should  be  charged  for  the 
land  it  occupied  and  the  real  estate  account  credited. 

(29)  Both  sides  of  the  accounts  not  yet  closed  should  be  footed 
up.  The  lesser  total  should  be  subtracted  from  the  greater  in 
each  account.  If  the  charge  side  is  greater  the  difference  repre- 
sents a  loss,  and  if  the  credit  side  is  greater,  a  gain.  The  sample 
potato  account  given  in  the  table  in  Fig.  61  will  illustrate  a  com- 
pleted crop  account. 

(30)  A  hst  of  the  losses  and  gams  should  be  made  and  the 


204  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

total  of  each  found  in  order  to  show  the  net  gam  or  loss  on  the 
whole  business. 

(31)  Each  account  and  the  business  as  a  whole  should  be 
studied  in  order  to  learn  how  to  improve  it. 

7.  —  Study  and  Interpret  Results 

Farm  accounts  are  of  little  use  unless  they  are  studied  and 
unless  conclusions  are  drawn  which  wdll  enable  the  farmer  to 
make  his  business  more  profitable  in  the  future.  It  is  just  as 
important  to  study  the  different  items  of  cost  and  returns  in  an 
account  as  it  is  to  know  whether  or  not  it  pays.  From  such  a 
study  it  is  often  possible  to  learn  how  to  reduce  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, or  to  increase  the  returns  so  as  to  make  a  losing  enter- 
prise pay  and  to  make  a  profitable  one  more  profitable.  In  study- 
ing the  results  of  a  year's  busmess,  you  must  keep  constantly  in 
mind  that  these  are  the  results  of  a  single  year.  Weather  con- 
ditions, crop  conditions,  and  market  conditions  for  the  year,  as 
compared  with  an  average  year,  must  be  considered.  For  instance, 
potatoes  in  1912  showed  large  losses  on  many  farms  because  of 
the  low  prices  and  the  quantities  lost  by  rot.  How^ever,  after 
studying  the  potato  account  to  find  the  cost  of  producing  an 
acre,  and  after  considering  both  an  average  yield  and  the  price 
for  the  locality,  the  conclusion  might  be  drawn  that  ordinarily 
it  would,  or  would  not,  be  a  profitable  business  to  raise  potatoes 
on  most  of  the  farms  where  potatoes  are  raised. 

The  potato  account  in  Fig,  61  was  studied  when  it  was  closed, 
and  the  following  facts  were  obtained: 

Total  acreage 14 

Total  yield  (bushels) 1,128 

Total  cost $735.24 

Total  value $1,272.05 

Total  profit $536.81 

Yield  per  acre  (bushels) 80 . 6 

Cost  per  acre $52.52 

Value  per  acre $90.86 

Profit  per  acre $38 .  34 

Man  hours  per  acre 57 

Horse  hours  per  acre 60 


KEEP  FARM  ACCOUNTS  205 

Labor  cost  per  acre $27 .  10 

Cost  per  bushel $0. 652 

Value  per  bushel $1 .  128 

Profit  per  bushel $0,476 

Net  return  per  hour  of  man  labor $0. 672 

Besides  the  satisfaction  of  actually  knowing  what  crops  or 
enterprises  pay  and  how  much  the  profit  is,  there  are  many  other 
ways  in  which  the  accounts  may  be  useful.  They  may  be  used 
to  study  the  seasonal  distribution  of  labor  on  the  farm  as  a  whole 
and  on  separate  enterprises,  and  also  to  determine  what  crops 
and  what  animals  are  the  most  profitable.  By  comparing  your 
results  with  the  facts  given  in  bulletins  on  the  same  subject  you 
can  find  how  your  efforts  compare  with  those  of  other  farmers 
as  to  economy  of  labor,  the  working  efficiency  of  horses,  and 
many  other  points. 

By  keeping  farm  cost  accounts  you  can  gain  an  idea  of  the 
value  of  labor.  You  soon  find  that  time  represents  money  and 
that  it  is  equally  as  important  to  save  one  as  to  save  the  other. 
You  see  that  it  is  just  as  important  to  save  an  hour's  work  by 
man  and  team  on  an  acre  of  oats,  as  it  is  to  get  a  yield  of  an 
extra  bushel  per  acre;  and  that  it  is  more  wasteful  to  have  a 
team  idle,  than  to  have  one  man  idle  for  the  same  length  of  time. 

Studying  the  accounts  after  closing  them  the  farmer  usually 
gets  many  surprises.  He  finds  that  very  often  the  largest  yields 
may  not  pay.  Often  he  finds  that  the  enterprises  which  he  thinks 
are  the  best  and  to  which  he  devotes  most  of  his  time  are  being 
conducted  at  a  loss,  while  the  steadier,  more  common  enter- 
prises or  crops  may  be  the  only  ones  that  show  profits. 


1.  Study  your  project  records  and  see  that  all  accounts  are  up  to 
date. 


2.  How  long  does  it  take  each  day  to  keep  your  accounts? 

3.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  capital  that  you  have  invested  in 

your  project? 


206  DAIRY   FAR:MING   PROJECTS 

4.  How  many  man  hours  and  how  many  horse  hours  have    you 

spent  on  your  project  each  month? 

5.  What  are  the  average  farm  wages  paid  to  hired  men  in  your 

locality? 

6.  How  many  hours  per  day  does  the  average  farm  horse  work? 

W-FM  :  345. 

7.  How  much  ivork  should  a  horse  do?    W-FM  :  348. 

8.  What  are  some  ways  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  labor? 

W-FM  :  332. 

9.  Hoio  can  you  cheapen  the  cost  of  machinery  on  your  project? 
10.   Will  it  pay  you  to  use  a  inilking  machine?     Give  reasons. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

DETECTING  AND  TREATING  DISEASES  OF 
DAIRY  CATTLE 

1.  Garget 

2.  Indigestion 

3.  Foot  rot  or  fouls 

4.  Contagious  abortion 

5.  Tuberculosis 

You  should  be  able  to  recognize  the  more  common  diseases  of 
cattle,  know  how  to  treat  the  simpler  ones,  and  know  when  it  is 
advisable  to  call  a  veterinarian.  Fortunately,  the  ailments  which 
most  commonly  occur  are  easily  remedied  by  the  dairyman  him- 
self. Several  ailments  such  as  scours  in  calves,  retention  of  after- 
birth, and  various  teat  troubles,  have  already  been  described, 
referred  to,  or  will  be  taken  up  in  other  chapters. 

1.  —  Garget 

(1)  Symptoms.  —  The  usual  indication  of  garget  is  stringy, 
lumpy  milk,  sometimes  containing  watery  matter  or,  in  advanced 
stages,  even  pus.  Swellings  and  hardenings  in  one  or  more  quar- 
ters of  the  udder  also  occur.  The  stringy  or  lumpy  material  will 
often  be  observed  first  in  the  bottom  of  the  strainer  after  the  milk 
has  gone  through.  One  reason  for  stripping  after  a  milking  ma- 
chine is  to  see  whether  there  are  any  signs  of  garget. 

(2)  Treatment.  —  Reduce  the  grain  ration  to  about  one  third 
of  the  normal  amount.  Give  a  good  physic,  such  as  one  pound 
of  Epsom  salts  and  one  ounce  of  ginger  dissolved  in  a  quart  of 
warm  water. 

After  the  physic  has  worked,  many  dairymen  give  with  good 

207 


208  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

results  a  tablespoonful  of  saltpeter  once  a  day  for  two  or  three 
days. 

Milk  the  udder  clean  two  or  three  times  a  day  or  oftener. 

In  very  severe  cases,  or  where  garget  seems  to  affect  large  pro- 
ducers very  suddenly,  wrap  a  wide  bandage  around  the  body  so 
as  to  support  the  udder.  Place  inside  of  this  bandage  against  the 
udder  a  hot  bran  poultice  or  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and 
keep  the  applications  hot.  After  an  hour  or  two  this  may  be 
removed  and  the  udder  rubbed  or  kneaded  thoroughly  with  lard 
or  raw  linseed  oil. 

In  very  severe  cases  where  pus  is  discharged  from  the  udder, 
or  in  cases  where  the  disease  begins  to  spread  to  other  cows,  a 
veterinarian  should  be  called. 

(3)  Causes.  —  Garget  may  come  from  overfeeding,  injuries, 
germ  infection,  or  exposure  to  the  weather.  In  many  cases  it 
seems  to  be  contagious  and  spreads  through  the  herd.  The  severe 
cases  ordinarily  come  from  neglect  of  minor  instances  of  ropy  milk 
or  from  lack  of  observation  on  the  part  of  the  milker  until  the 
udder  is  in  a  bad  condition. 

1.  "What  are  all  of  the  symptoms  of  garget?     By  what  other  names 

is  garget  known?     DC  :  231-2.3S. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  injurious  effects  of  garget?    DC:  231-238. 

3.  In  cases  of  contagious  mammilis  or  garget  how  does  the  germ  probably 

pass  from  one  cow  to  another?     DC  :  235. 

2.  —  Indigestion 

(1)  Symptoms.  —  The  symptoms  of  indigestion  are  diminished 
appetite,  irregular  chewing  of  the  cud,  dull,  sickly  appearance, 
constipation,  and  dung  passed  poorly  digested  and  of  bad  odor. 
Bloat  also  may  accompany  the  trouble. 

(2)  Treatment.  —  Cut  down  all  of  the  ration.  Give  a  laxative, 
such  as  one  pound  of  Glauber's  salts  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  Unseed 
tea  and  a  pint  of  molasses.  Feed  small  quantities  of  laxative  feeds, 
such  as  pasture,  roots,  silage,  or  oil  meal. 


TREATING  DISEASES  OF   DAIRY  CATTLE  209 

1.  What  liquids  may  be  given  to  soothe  the  Hning  of  the  stomach? 

DC  :  30. 

2.  In  animals  which  have  died  of  indigestion,  what  is  the  condition  of  the 

mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  intestines?     DC  :  30, 

3.  — Foot  Rot  or  Fouls 

(1)  Symptoms.  —  If  any  of  the  cattle  limp  as  they  walk  up  to 
the  barn,  examine  their  feet  closely  to  discover  whether  there  is  a 
swelling  above  the  hoof  or  between  the  claws.  Such  a  swelling 
is  an  indication  of  fouls.  It  will  also  be  accompanied  generally 
by  inflammation.  If  the  disease  is  neglected,  deep  abscesses  may 
form,  and  the  pus  may  work  into  the  horny  wall. 

If  fouls  are  treated  in  time,  the  cure  is  generally  very  simple. 
If  allowed  to  progress  too  far,  the  case  may  require  treatment  for 
many  weeks. 

Fouls  seems  to  be  contagious,  and  as  soon  as  one  case  occurs 
it  is  well  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  others. 

(2)  Treatment.  —  Pass  a  rope  back  and  forth  between  the  claws 
of  the  hoof  with  a  sawlike  motion  to  clean  out  the  diseased  parts. 
Then  apply  some  good  disinfectant  in  the  pure  form.  The  coal 
tar  disinfectants  are  good  for  this.  Carbolic  acid  solution  —  one 
ounce  to  a  pint  of  water  —  is  good.  One  of  the  best  remedies  in 
severe  cases  is  a  saturated  solution  of  blue  vitriol.  In  case  of 
severe  inflammation  and  pain,  a  bran  or  flaxseed  poultice  may 
be  applied. 

1.  How  should  cattle  be  treated  in  case  of  loss  of  hoof?     DC  :  334. 

2.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  that  may  produce  inflammation 

of  the  foot?     DC  :  334. 


3.  What  is  idceration  of  the  heel,  how  may  it  he  recognized,  and  how  is  it 
treated?    DC  :  335. 


210  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

4.  —  Contagious  Abortion 

(1)  Symptoms.  —  When  the  calf  is  born  prematurely,  the 
trouble  is  known  as  abortion.  There  are  two  forms,  known  as 
accidental  abortion  and  contagious  abortion.  Probably  few  cases 
are  accidental  and  nearly  all  are  contagious.  This  disease  causes 
greater  loss  to  the  dairymen  of  America  than  any  other  cattle  dis- 
ease. It  is  now  thought  that  various  other  ailments  of  cattle  are 
closely  associated  with  contagious  abortion.  Many  investigators 
are  constanth^  working  on  this  disease,  and  progressive  dairymen 
are  keeping  in  close  touch  with  the  latest  research  work. 

Send  to  your  own  state  agricultural  college  or  to  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  or  to  the  New  York  or  Wiscon- 
sin State  College  of  Agriculture,  for  the  latest  bulletins  on  con- 
tagious abortion  and  study  them  carefully. 

(2)  Treatment.  —  The  chief  means  of  prevention  or  treatment 
of  contagious  abortion  are  isolation  and  disinfection.  As  soon  as 
a  cow  has  aborted,  the  gutter,  stall,  cow,  and  everything  with  which 
she  has  come  in  contact  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  In- 
ject some  good  germicide  into  the  vagina  and  wash  off  all  the 
parts  about  the  vulva  and  the  roots  of  the  tail. 

Do  not  breed  for  at  least  three  months  cows  that  have  aborted. 

Bulls  which  serve  cows  that  have  aborted  should  be  syringed 
out  and  carefully  disinfected  before  being  allowed  to  serve  healthy 
cows. 


5.  —  Tuberculosis 

The  cause  of  tuberculosis  is  the  tubercle  bacillus  which  may  find 
lodgment  at  any  point  in  the  body  and  develop  and  multiply. 
As  it  develops  it  secretes  irritants  which  lead  to  the  formation  of 
a  nodule  or  tubercle. 

(1)  Symptoms.  —  When  the  lungs  are  affected,  the  animal 
may  cough  a  dull,  short  cough.  Wliatever  part  is  affected,  the 
animal  is  Ukely  to  develop  a  debilitated  condition  and  become 
hidebound,  and  its  hair  becomes  harsh  and  dry. 


TREATING   DISEASES  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  211 

The  best  means  of  determining  whether  or  not  an  animal  has 
tuberculosis  is  the  tubercuUn  test.  Like  other  tests  this  is  not 
infallible,  but  its  very  large  percentage  of  accuracy  is  sufficient 
reason  for  its  continued  use. 

(2)  Treatment.  —  No  cure  is  known  for  tuberculosis.  Pre- 
vention consists  in  removing  all  conditions  which  tend  to  aid  the 
development  of  the  disease.  Give  the  animal  plenty  of  fresh 
air,  plenty  of  light,  and  enough  food  to  nourish  the  body.  Isolate 
all  tuberculous  animals  as  soon  as  they  are  detected. 

1.  How  is  the  tuberculin  test  made?     DC  :  417. 

2.  How  accurate  is  the  tuberculin  test?     DC  :  417. 

3.  What  other  conditions  may  cause  some  elevation  of  temperature 

during  a  tuberculin  test  besides  tuberculosis? 

4.  How  should  you  proceed  to  give  a  cow  a  drench?     DC  :  7. 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  best  disinfectants  to  use  about  the 

stable?     DC  :  361-364. 


What  are  the  symptoms  of  foot  and  mouth  disease? 
DC  :  382-383. 


7.  Visit  a  herd  which  is  being  tuberculin  tested;  observe  the  veterinarian 
when  he  makes  the  injections;  be  present  at  one  or  more  readings 
of  temperatures;  study  the  completed  charts  of  temperatures.  Which 
animals  are  suspected?  Which  ones  are  tuberculous  and  which 
ones  have  no  reactions? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


RAISING  THE   DAIRY   CALF 


Caring  for  the  calf  at  birth 
Growing  the  young  calf 

(1)  Feeding  during  the  first  three  weeks 

(2)  Changing  to  skim  milk  and  other  foods 

(3)  Raising  a  good  dairy  calf  without  skim  milk 
Pasturing  the  calf 

Preventing  the  growth  of  horns 

Preventing  and  treating  diseases  of  young  calves 

Keeping  calves  from  sucking  each  other 


This  calf  is  being  raised  by  a  tsrlidol  i:ii  1 
"Junior  Home  Prujeet.  " 

212 


w  York  State  as  her 


RAISING   THE   DAIRY  CALF  213 

The  raising  of  good  calves  is  expensive  and  requires  much  care. 
But  the  improvement  of  our  dairy  cattle  depends  largely  upon  the 
proper  development  of  well-bred  calves.  A  few  farmers  who  are 
close  to  market  and  sell  fluid  milk  find  it  more  profitable  to  buy 
their  cows  than  to  raise  them.  The  majority  of  dairymen,  how- 
ever, must  raise  their  own  cows.  The  dairyman  who  raises 
the  animals  of  his  own  herd  can  do  constructive  work  in  improving 
dairy  cattle,  while  he  who  purchases  cows  can  contribute  nothing 
to  the  improvement  of  the  cattle  of  the  country.  The  owner  of 
pure  breds  will,  of  course,  raise  his  own  calves  and  raise  them  in 
the  best  possible  way  with  only  due  regard  to  the  expense  as  they 
constitute  the  most  valued  product  of  his  herd. 

1.  —  Caring  for  the  Calf  at  Birth 

As  soon  as  the  calf  is  born,  the  mother  will  ordinarily  lick  it 
dry.  If  she  does  not  do  so,  the  calf  should  be  wiped  dry  with  some 
clean  straw  or  a  cloth.  The  navel  should  be  immediately  dis- 
infected by  painting  with  iodine  or  by  dipping  in  boric  acid. 
This  will  guard  against  infection  which  might  result  in  disease 
and  loss  of  the  calf.  The  calf  should  then  be  aided  to  take  from 
its  mother  the  first  milk  secreted.  This  milk  is  thick,  and  contains 
the  colostrum  which  acts  upon  the  calf  as  a  laxative  and  cleans 
out  the  digestive  tract.  If  the  calf  is  weak,  help  it  to  stand  upon 
its  feet  and  get  a  good  meal  of  warm  milk  from  its  mother.  After 
that,  if  it  is  a  strong,  healthy  calf,  it  will  get  to  the  milk  by  itself 
without  aid. 

1.  What  is  the  average  birth  weight  of  the  calves  from  the  different 

breeds  of  dairy  cattle?     E  :  174. 

2.  Why  should  the  naval  cord  be  disinfected  as  soon  as  the  calf 

is  born?     E  :  198. 

2.  —  Growing  the  Young  Calf 

The  small  calf  should  be  kept  fairly  warm,  should  have  good 
light,  good  air,  a  clean  bed,  and  clean  feed.     Above  all,  it  should 


214  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

be  fed  regularly,  and  on  food  which  is  uniform  in  quantity  and  in 
quality.  Observance  of  these  requirements  will  prevent  many 
of  the  digestive  disorders  that  are  so  often  fatal  to  calves. 

(1)  Feeding  during  the  first  three  weeks.  —  After  the  calf 
has  been  with  its  mother  for  two  or  three  days,  it  should  be  taught 
to  drink  from  a  pail  and  should  then  be  fed  from  two  to  three 
quarts  of  sweet  milk  at  a  feeding,  twice  a  day.  If  it  is  possible,  it 
is  even  better  to  feed  the  same  total  amount  of  feed,  divided 
into  three  feedings  during  the  day,  rather  than  into  two  feedings. 
As  the  calf  grows,  the  amount  of  milk  fed  should  gradually  be 
increased.  Any  sign  of  laxativeness,  or  scouring,  or  other  digestive 
disorders  should  be  followed  at  once  by  a  decrease  in  the  amount 
of  feed  until  the  calf  has  recovered.  The  feed  pails  should  at  all 
times  be  kept  clean  and  should  be  frequently  scalded  out  to  pre- 
vent bacterial  growth. 

(2)  Changing  to  skim  milk  and  other  food.  —  After  three  weeks, 
begin  to  substitute  skim  milk  for  the  whole  milk  fed  the  calf. 
You  should  do  this  very  gradually,  substituting  for  only  a  fifth 
or  a  fourth  of  the  ration  at  first,  and  gradually  increasing  until 
the  calf's  milk  diet  is  entirely  of  skim  milk.  If  possible,  the  skim 
milk  should  be  sweet.  If  it  is  impossible  to  have  the  skim  milk 
always  sweet,  it  is  better  to  have  it  always  sour  than  to  have  it 
alternately  sweet  and  sour  on  successive  days.  The  calf  should 
also  be  given  some  good  alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  The  fine  second 
cutting  of  these  crops  is  best  for  this  purpose.  The  young  calf 
should  be  given  as  much  hay  as  it  will  clean  up  from  tliis  time  on. 

Before  the  cAi  is  three  weeks  old,  it  may  begin  to  eat  some 
grain.  The  best  mixture  for  this  purpose,  and  one  which  is  in 
almost  universal  use  by  good  dairymen,  is  made  up  as  follows: 

30  pounds  of  corn  meal  or  hominy 
30  pounds  of  ground  oats 
30  pounds  of  wheat  bran 
10  pounds  of  oil  meal 

Some  dairymen  prefer  to  feed  a  mixture  made  up  of  ninety  pounds 
of  ground  oats  and  ten  pounds  of  oil  meal. 


RAISING  THE   DAIRY  CALF  215 

If  skim  milk  from  a  butter  factory  or  central  skimming  station 
is  fed,  it  should  be  pasteurized  first.  Tuberculosis  has  been 
spread  to  a  large  extent  in  this  country  through  the  feeding  of 
raw  creamery  skim  milk. 

(3)  Raising  a  good  dairy  calf  without  skim  milk.  —  If  fluid  milk 
is  sold  from  the  farm,  there  will  be  no  skim  milk  upon  which  to 
raise  the  dairy  calf.  The  best  substitute  for  the  milk  is  warm 
gruel  made  according  to  directions  from  some  of  the  best  of  the 
patent  calf  foods  or  from  the  following  formula:  Mix  together 
equal  weights  of  linseed  oil  meal,  red-dog  flour,  soluble  blood 
flour,  and  hominy  feed.  Into  a  pound  of  this  dry  mixture,  stir 
enough  cold  water  to  make  a  paste,  to  which  add  enough  hot 
water,  at  a  temperature  of  145°  F.  to  make  a  gallon  of  gruel. 
If  the  gruel  becomes  hotter  than  145°,  it  will  be  injured.  Feed 
this  warm  gruel  to  the  calf  in  the  same  way  you  would  feed  skim 
milk.  It  is  often  advisable  to  continue  feeding  some  milk,  until 
the  calf  is  four  or  five  months  old.  This  can  be  done  by  putting 
one  pint  of  whole  milk  into  every  feeding  of  gruel. 

1.  Compare  the  cost  of  raising  calves  on  skim  milk  with  the  cost 

of  raising  on  whole  milk.     E  :  181. 

2.  What  is  the  minimum  amount  of  whole  milk  required  for  start- 

ing a  calf?     E  :  180. 

3.  When  should  the  calf  be  taken  from  its  mother? 

E  :  182.     W-PD  :  250. 

4.  What  should  be  the  temperature  of  milk  fed  to  calves?    E  :  183. 

3.  —  Pasturing  the  Calf 

The  best  calves  are  raised  by  keeping  them  in  the  barn  through- 
out the  entire  first  year  of  their  lives.  Many  dairymen,  however, 
turn  the  calf  out  to  pasture  at  the  age  of  two  or  three  months, 
and  also  feed  as  a  supplement  to  the  pasture  the  regular  ration 
of  skim  milk  or  gruel.    Many  more  dairymen  consider  that  a  calf 


216 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


can  profitably  be  placed  on  pasture  when  it  is  six  months  old. 
They  believe  that  it  will  thrive  there  with  a  supplementary  feed 
of  dry  grain.  Fairly  good  calves  are  raised  in  this  manner.  Dur- 
ing the  time  that  the  calf  is  kept  in  the  barn  between  the  ages  of 


Fig.  67.  —  Guernsey  calves  on  pasti 


six  months  and  two  years,  it  should  be  given  liberal  amounts  of 
the  same  dry  grain  mixture  that  it  was  given  when  young  and 
also  all  the  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  that  it  will  clean  up.  A  good 
rule  to  follow  in  feeding  grain  to  the  growing  calf  is  to  feed  at  the 
rate  of  one  pound  per  day  for  the  first  one  hundred  pounds  of 


RAISING  THE  DAIRY  CALF  217 

the  calf's  weight,  and  half  a  pound  more  for  each  additional  one 
hundred  pounds.  After  the  calf  is  six  months  old,  it  should  be 
given  silage  or  roots  if  they  are  available.  It  should  also  have 
plenty  of  fresh  water,  and  a  handful  of  salt  at  least  twice  a  week. 
After  a  heifer  calf  is  a  year  old,  it  is  well  to  keep  her  in  stanchions 
when  in  the  barn. 

4.  —  Preventing  the  Growth  of  Horns 

When  the  calf  is  about  ten  days  old,  the  buttonlike  lumps 
where  the  horn  will  later  appear,  if  not  prevented,  can  be  felt. 
Except  in  the  case  of  show  stock,  it  is  generally  advisable  to 
treat  the  horns  at  this  time  so  that  they  will  not  develop.  First, 
bind  the  calf's  legs  together,  or  tie  it  in  some  way  so  that  it  is 
secure.  Then  with  scissors  clip  the  hair  from  around  the  button- 
hke  lumps.  Wrap  one  end  of  a  stick  of  caustic  potash  or  caustic 
soda  in  paper  to  protect  the  fingers,  dip  the  other  end  in  water, 
and  with  it  rub  the  skin  over  the  lump  vigorously  covering  a 
space  about  the  size  of  a  dime.  Rub  the  spot  until  it  bleeds  at 
the  center.  Do  not  let  the  caustic  liquid  get  into  the  eyes  of  the 
calf.    If  this  operation  is  done  properly,  the  horns  will  not  develop. 

5.  —  Preventing  and  Treating  Diseases  of  Young  Calves 

The  most  common  ailment  of  young  calves  is  scours.  As  soon 
as  the  calf  begins  to  be  very  laxative,  or  to  scour  badly,  its  feed 
should  be  decreased  to  half  of  the  customary  amount.  The  feed 
box  and  the  feed  pail  should  be  carefully  sterilized,  clean  bedding 
should  be  put  in  the  stall,  and  everything  made  as  sanitary  as 
possible.  If  the  excrement  is  white,  the  disease  may  be  the  white 
scours.  In  this  case,  a  veterinarian  should  be  consulted  at  once. 
If  the  excrement  is  a  bright  yellow,  the  following  simple  remedies 
together  with  the  decreasing  of  the  ration  will  ordinarily  cure 
the  disease:  two  raw  eggs,  or  a  cup  of  strong  coffee. 

Ringworm  is  another  disease  very  common  among  calves.  It 
usually  appears  as  a  bare  rough  spot  around  the  eyes  or  on  the 
face  and  sometimes  on  the  body.    Ringworm  results  from  dirty 


218  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

surroundings.  It  may  be  controlled  by  washing  the  spot  with  a 
solution  of  one  part  of  sheep-dip,  or  coal  tar  disinfectant,  in  twenty 
parts  of  water.  Be  careful  not  to  get  this  solution  into  the  calf's 
eyes.  Ringworm  may  also  be  cured  by  rubbing  it  thoroughly 
with  an  ointment  containing  sulphur.  Such  an  ointment  may  be 
made  by  mixing  sulphur  with  either  common  lard  or  vaseline. 

Lice  on  the  calf  can  ordinarily  be  killed  by  washing  it  with  the 
disinfectant  solution  given  above.  If  the  calf  is  washed  in  cold 
weather,  be  sure  to  blanket  it  until  it  is  dry. 

6.  —  Keeping  Calves  from  Sucking  Each  Other 

Calves  should  never  be  allowed  to  suck  each  other.  This  habit 
is  often  contracted,  if  calves  are  allowed  to  run  together  imme- 
diately after  eating  from  a  pail.  It  is  better  to  have  small  calf 
stanchions  in  which  to  fasten  the  calves  while  eating  and  for  a 
half  hour  or  longer  after  feeding.  If  the  habit  of  sucking  is  formed, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  put  them  into  separate  pens  or  tie  them 
up  separately  for  a  time. 

1.  Should  calves  that  are  going  to  be  raised  be  born  in  the  spring 

or  fall?     E  :  189.     W-P*D  :  249. 

2.  How  does  whey  compare  with  skim  milk  as  a  calf  food? 

E:  194. 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  using  patent 

calf  feeders?     E  :  196. 

4.  How  should  calves  be  fed  for  veal?     E  :  200. 

5.  Why  are  raw  eggs  beneficial  for  calves  icilh  the  scours?    W-PD  :  258. 

6.  At  what  age  should  bull  calves  be  separated  from  heifer  calves? 

W-PD  :  261. 

7.  What  is  a  new  born  calf  icorth  in  your  locality?     What  is  a  veal  calf 

worth?  a  yearling  heifer? 


RAISING  THE   DAIRY   CALF  219 

8.  Is  skim  milk  available  for  calf  raising  in  your  locality?    How  much 

is  it  xoorth  "per  100  pounds? 

9.  Does  your  neighborJiood  raise  a  surplus  of  cattle  to  sell,  or  does  it  pur- 

chase from  other  regions  a  portion  of  the  number  required  for  herd 
upkeep? 

10.  Prepare  in  detail  your  plan  for  raising  calves  in  connection  with 
your  project. 


220 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


CHAPTER  XIX 

STARTING  IN  THE  BUSINESS  OF  RAISING 
PURE  BRED  DAIRY  CATTLE 

1.  Handle  good   grades  as  the  best    preparation   for    raising 

pure  breds 

2.  Select  the  breed  that  is  most  popular  in  your  region 

3.  Select  good  foundation  stock  for  the  pure  bred  herd 

4.  Make  pure  breds  pay  from  milk  production  alone  at  first 

5.  Select  and  keep  cows  that  are  uniform  and  good  types  of 

the  breed 

6.  Keep  dairy  records  and  cull  all  unprofitable  cows 

7.  Lispose  of   young   bulls   and    other  surplus   stock   before 

spending  too  much  money  on  them 

1.  —  Handle  Good  Grades  as  the  Best  Preparation  for 
Raising  Pure  Breds 

The  business  of  raising  pure  bred  cattle  is  more  interesting  and 
generally  more  profitable  than  the  raising  of  grades.  It  requires, 
however,  more  capital  and  consequently  there  is  much  more 
risk  involved.  The  best  way  for  the  dairyman  to  start  toward 
raising  pure  bred  stock  is  first  of  all  to  handle  a  very  high  pro- 
ducing and  profitable  grade  herd.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether 
any  dairyman  ought  to  handle  pure  breds  unless  he  can  select 
and  handle  grade  cattle  in  such  a  way  as  to  obtain  an  average 
production  per  cow  of  at  least  eight  thousand  pounds  per  year 
for  Holsteins,  and,  at  least,  three  hundred  pounds  of  butter  per 
year  for  Guernseys  and  Jerseys.  The  dairyman  who  can  obtain 
as  high  production  as  this  from  grades  is  justified  in  starting  in 
the  pure  bred  cattle  business. 

221 


222  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

It  is  best  to  start  with  only  a  few  pure  bred  cattle.  By  doing 
this,  you  will  grow  up  with  your  herd  and  at  the  same  time 
grow  into  the  business  gradually.  There  is  much  to  be  learned 
in  handling  any  kind  of  pure  bred  stock.  You  must  know  each 
animal  in  your  barn  and  its  ancestors,  with  the  production  and 
breeding  of  each,  for  several  generations  back.  If  you  start  with 
two  or  three  animals  and  make  a  close  study  of  these,  by  the 
time  that  the  number  of  your  pure  breds  has  increased  until  the 
entire  herd  is  pure  bred,  you  will  know  every  individual  thoroughly. 
At  the  same  time,  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the  ancestors 
and  the  near  relatives  of  each  one  of  your  animals,  you  will  be 
getting  acquainted  with  the  history  and  performance  of  each 
one  of  the  famous  animals  of  the  breed.  By  all  means  subscribe 
at  once  for  the  agricultural  paper  which  represents  your  breed 
specifically  and  read  it  carefully  so  that  you  may  become  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  all  phases  of  the  business. 

2.  —  Select  the  Breed  That  Is  Most  Popular  in  Your  Region 

When  starting  in  the  business  of  raising  pure  bred  cattle  select 
the  breed  which  is  most  popular  in  the  region  where  you  live. 
If  one  breed  of  cattle  is  kept  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
other  breed,  it  is  a  very  good  indication  that  the  farmers  of  that 
region  have  abundant  proof  that  the  breed  which  they  are  keep- 
ing is  the  most  profitable  for  that  region.  Many  men  have  an 
idea  that  they  are  much  more  interested  in  one  breed  than  in 
another,  even  though  they  have  never  handled  this  one  breed 
more  than  the  others.  These  men  will  probably  find  that  the 
breed  which  produces  a  good  profit  for  them  will  be  the  most 
interesting  to  them.  However,  if  they  are  firmly  fixed  in  their 
preference  in  this  matter,  and  the  breed  of  cattle  which  they 
wish  to  have  is  not  kept  generally  in  the  region  where  they  are, 
it  would  ordinarily  be  advisable  for  them  to  move  to  the  region 
where  the  breed  of  cattle  which  they  prefer  is  the  common  type. 

There  is  a  big  advantage  in  having  neighbors  who  are  engaged 
in  the  same  business  that  you  are.    This  is  particularly  true  in 


RAISING   PURE   BRED   DAIRY   CATTLE  223 

raising  pure  bred  cattle.  If  several  men  in  a  region  are  breeding 
the  same  kind  of  stock,  buyers  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  come 
to  that  region  for  that  stock.  Less  advertising  is  necessary,  and 
better  prices  can  be  obtained,  because  the  buyer  needs  to  spend 
less  money  and  time  in  finding  what  he  wishes.  Many  regions 
have  become  famous  for  certain  breeds  of  cows,  and  the  breeders 
who  live  there  have  a  decided  advantage  over  a  breeder  who 
lives  in  an  isolated  district  with  no  other  man  in  the  same  business 
located  near  by.  Onondaga  County  and  Madison  County  in  New 
York  State,  Jefferson  County  in  Wisconsin,  certain  sections  of 
Minnesota,  certain  sections  of  California,  and  many  other  sections 
may  be  cited  as  examples  of  the  advantage  that  comes  from 
having  many  men  engaged  in  breeding  one  kind  of  cattle. 

In  such  a  region,  there  is  also  a  considerable  advantage  in  the 
possibility  of  buying  good  stock  close  at  home,  in  the  possibility 
of  owning  especially  valuable  bulls  in  partnership  with  other 
breeders,  and  in  the  possibiUty  of  securing  the  services  of  especi- 
ally valuable  bulls  at  a  small  outlay  in  traveling  expense.  There 
are  many  men  of  long  experience  in  such  a  region  with  whom 
the  young  breeder  can  talk  over  his  problems  and  from  whom 
much  valuable  advice  can  be  obtained.  This  is  by  no  means  the 
least  valuable  advantage  of  being  in  a  region  which  is  concen- 
trating upon  the  breed  you  have  chosen. 

3.  —  Select  Good  Foundation  Stock  for  the 
Pure  Bred  Herd 

In  selecting  foundation  stock  for  a  pure  bred  herd,  the  young 
breeder  who  expects  to  start  with  a  few  animals  and  develop 
slowly  should  select  stock  primarily  on  the  basis  of  good  in- 
dividuaUty.  If  you  can  obtain  this  quahty  and  good  breeding 
at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  well  to  do  so,  but  this  combination 
is  generally  expensive.  If  one  or  the  other  factor  must  be  sacri- 
ficed, it  is  better  to  select  fine  individuals.  During  the  past  few 
years,  it  has  been  demonstrated  time  and  again  in  the  sales  ring 
that  animals  of  poor  individuality  do  not  sell  for  large  prices 


224  DAIRY  FARAIIXG   PROJECTS 

regardless  of  the  lines  of  breeding  back  of  them.  Similarly  it  has 
been  shown  that  the  good  individual  with  mediocre  breeding 
Vjrings  a  much  higher  price  than  the  animal  of  fair  or  poor  indi- 
viduaUty  with  good  breeding. 

4.  —  Make  Pure  Breds  Pay  from  Milk 
Production  Alone  at  First 

The  new  breeder  often  makes  the  mistake  of  attempting  to 
develop  a  pure  bred  herd  rapidly,  at  the  sacrifice  of  milk  produc- 
tion. The  ultimate  test  of  the  value  of  the  pure  bred  cow,  as  well 
as  of  the  grade  cow,  is  the  quantity  of  milk  which  she  will  pro- 
duce. Moreover,  the  young  breeder  generally  needs  a  quick  turn 
over  of  his  money  or  quick  financial  returns.  These  results  can 
be  obtained  best  by  purchasing  cattle  which  will  give  him  a  large 
volume  of  products  to  sell  at  once.  Keeping  cattle  for  the  sake 
of  the  offspring  only  is  an  investment  for  deferred  returns  and 
not  suitable  for  the  man  who  has  a  small  amount  of  capital. 
The  pure  bred  cattle  first  purchased  should  pay  their  way  from 
milk  products  alone;  and,  if  they  are  the  sort  which  ought  to  be 
kept,  they  should  pay  better  than  the  average  of  good  grade 
cattle.  Thus  most  of  the  extra  profits  that  accrue  early  from 
the  keeping  of  pure  bred  stock  will  come  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  the  offspring. 

5.  —  Select  and  Keep  Cows  That  Are  Uniform  and 
Good  Types  of  the  Breed 

In  purchasing  the  foundation  stock  for  a  pure  bred  herd,  the 
dairyman  should  select  cows  which  are  uniform  in  type.  He 
should  also  select  cows  which  are  typical  of  the  breed.  Cows  which 
are  extremely  large  or  extremely  small  or  which  are  an  extreme 
in  color  or  abnormal  in  any  other  feature  should  not  be  selected. 
The  best  improvement  will  be  obtained,  however,  by  always  work- 
ing for  something  a  little  above  the  average  of  the  breed  or  the 
average  of  the  particular  herd.  An  extreme  characteristic  of 
any  sort  may  mean  an  abnoi-mal  individual.    Uniformity  of  type 


RAISING   PURE   BRED   DAIRY  CATTLE  225 

in  the  foundation  stock,  of  course,  is  not  as  important  as  uniform- 
ity of  type  in  the  full  herd  when  it  has  all  become  pure  bred.  If 
the  first  generation  is  not  entirely  uniform,  the  offspring  will  be 
more  uniform  because  they  will  probably  be  sired  by  the  same 
bull.  For  the  same  reason,  each  successive  generation  of  off- 
spring will  tend  to  become  more  miiform  because  of  the  mfluence 


Among  the  breeders  of  all  kinds  of  animals,  there  are  individuals 
who  are  faddists  in  regard  to  particular  characteristics  of  the  breed. 
Some  Holstein  breeders  favor  dark-colored  Holsteins,  and  some 
favor  Holsteins  that  are  light  colored.  Some  Jersey  producers 
object  very  seriously  to  animals  which  are  broken  colored,  that 
is,  with  white  spots  on  them.  Some  Jersey  producers  will  keep 
only  cattle  that  are  mouse  colored  or  dark  colored  or  some  other 


226  DAIRY   FARMIXCi   PROJECTS 

particular  shade.  Possession  of  such  characteristics  is  without 
value,  unless  it  can  be  proved  that  there  is  some  relation  between 
color  and  production.  Moreover,  such  a  mode  of  selection  is 
a  process  which  results  in  the  elimination  of  some  good  individuals, 
simply  because  they  have  not  the  favored  characteristics. 
It  is  best  to  avoid  all  such  fads.     The  only  points  which  should 


be  valued  in  judging  or  scormg  a  dairy  cow  are  those  which  are 
known  to  have  a  direct  relation  to  production. 

6.  —  Keep  Dairy  Records  and  Cull  All  Unprofitable  Cows 

It  is  even  more  necessary  and  desirable  for  the  owner  of  pure 
breds  to  keep  dairy  records  than  for  the  owner  of  grade  stock. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  undesirable  and  unprofitable  individ- 
uals among  the  pure  breds  of  any  breed.    This  is  especially  true 


RAISING  PURE  BRED  DAIRY  CATTLE  227 

because  often  the  pure  breds  have  net  been  culled  so  closely  as 
grades  are  culled  by  our  best  dairymen.  Many  a  pure  bred  an- 
imal which  is  such  a  poor  producer  that  she  ought  to  be  sent  to 
the  butcher  is  kept  in  a  herd  and  bred,  simply  because  all  of  her 
offspring  can  be  registered  and  readily  sold. 

Good  dairy  records  will  often  be  of  value  in  selling  stock.  If 
they  are  unofficial  records,  their  value  in  making  a  sale  will  depend 
entirely  upon  the  reputation  jf  the  owner.  If  the  breeder  is  an 
honest,  upright  man  and  known  to  be  such  throughout  the  trade, 
his  unofficial  herd  records  may  be  given  nearly  equal  credence  with 
official  records. 

7.  —  Dispose  of  Young  Bulls  and  Other  Surplus  Stock 
before  Spending  Too  Much  Money  on  Them 

Pure  bred  bulls  which  come  from  untested  dams  and  unknown 
sires  generally  find  a  poor  market  and  must  be  sold  for  a  low  price. 
If  you  are  a  young  breeder,  you  should  recognize  this  and  act  ac- 
cordingly. It  is  not  profitable  to  take  a  young  bull  of  such  un- 
certain value  and  raise  him  in  an  expensive  way  with  the  pos- 
sibility that  you  may  be  able  to  sell  him  for  a  fair  price  when  he  is 
six  months  old.  With  the  present  price  of  labor,  feed,  and  milk,  it 
costs  a  considerable  amount  of  money  to  raise  a  bull  calf  until  he 
is  six  months  old.  Unless  you  are  fairly  certain  of  a  market  for 
such  animals,  you  should  at  once  convert  them  into  veal  or  other- 
wise dispose  of  them  if  you  can  get  a  fair  profit.  When  the  herd 
begins  to  develop  so  that  the  bulls  have  a  considerable  value  or 
when  you  have  a  good  market  for  all  surplus  bulls,  you  may  be 
justified  in  raising  such  animals  in  a  rather  expensive  manner  up 
to  the  age  when  you  can  dispose  of  them  to  best  advantage.  In- 
ventories of  many  herds  of  pure  bred  cattle  show  that  the  owners 
have  on  hand  a  number  of  bull  calves  or  other  unproductive  stock 
which  they  hope  to  sell.  In  many  such  cases,  a  record  of  the  sales 
has  shown  that  money  was  lost  in  holding  these  animals  too  long. 
An  unproductive  animal  should  be  disposed  of  as  soon  as  possible. 
Each  pound  of  feed  which  it  eats  and  each  hour  of  labor  which  is 


228  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

spent  on  it  increases  the  amount  of  money  which  you  must  get 
out  of  it  to  show  a  profit. 

It  is  expensive  to  keep  in  the  herd:  calves  which  are  constitu- 
tionally weak;  cows  which  are  physically  defective;  cows  which 
have  aborted;  and  all  other  animals  that  are  nonproducers 
and  that  are  quite  likely  never  to  be  producers.  As  soon  as  an  an- 
imal becomes  unproductive  or  is  in  a  bad  condition  physically, 
it  is  generally  best  to  dispose  of  it  rather  than  to  spend  time  and 
labor  upon  it.  Selling  quickly  at  a  small  loss  and  devoting  the 
money  and  the  labor  thus  saved  to  handling  stock  which  is  pro- 
ductive will  generally  mean  greater  profits. 

1.  What  is  a  pure  bred  animal?     EW  :  13. 

2.  What  is  meant  by  grading  up  pure  breds?     W-FM  :  230. 

3.  Can  pure  bred  heifers  be  raised  as  cheaply  as  grades?   W-FM: 

228. 

4.  What  is  a  pedigree  and  what  is  its  value?     EW  :  15. 

5.  How  many  animals  have  been  registered  in  each  of  the  dairy 

breeds  in  America?     EW  :  17. 

6.  What  is  a  pure  bred  yearUng  heifer  of  each  of  the  principal 

dairy  breeds  worth  in  your  neighborhood? 

7.  Is  your  neighborhood  noted  for  the  production  of  any  kind  of 

pure  bred  cattle?     What  advantages  or  disadvantages  would 
there  be  in  starting  a  pure  bred  business  there? 

8.  When  were  the  first  pure  breds  brought  into  your  neighborhood? 

9.  Make  a  five-year  plan  for  the  management  of  your  project  herd  and  the 

gradual  changing  from  grades  to  pure  breds.     Estimate  the  annual 
inventories,  receipts,  expenses,  cattle  sold,  and  cattle  purchased. 


CHAPTER  XX 

IMPROVING  THE  DAIRY  HERD 
THROUGH  BREEDING 

1.  Make    careful    plans    for    improving    the    dairy    herd    by 

breeding 

2.  Select  young  stock  carefully 

3.  Select  parents  that  are  not  too  dissimilar 

4.  Breed  according  to  the  law  of  heredity 

5.  Do  not  expect  to  control  sex 

G.  Do  not  count  on  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characteristics 

7.  Be  cautious  about  inbreeding 

8.  Avoid  crossbreeding  or  hybridizing 

9.  Take  every  advantage  of  prepotency 

1.  —  Make  Careful  Plans  for  Improving  the  Dairy 
Herd  by  Breeding 

After  you  select  your  foundation  stock,  you  should  study  all 
phases  of  the  business  and  work  out  careful  plans  for  the  future 
breeding  of  the  herd.  In  doing  this,  you  should  have  in  mind 
the  great  laws  of  breeding. 

These  breeding  plans,  hke  all  other  plans,  will  be  subject  to 
change  by  conditions  that  may  arise  during  any  particular  year; 
but  the  man  who  breeds  without  a  plan  is  likely  to  get  unsatis- 
factory results.  The  making  of  a  plan  requires  considerable 
study  of  the  Unes  of  breeding  within  the  breed,  and  the  carrying 
out  of  the  plan  requires  still  more  study  of  these  breeding  lines. 

Have  in  mind  the  ideal  of  type  and  production  towards  which 
you  wish  to  breed.  This  ideal  of  type  should  correspond  with 
the  ideal  for  the  particular  breed  of  cattle  outhned  by  the  Breed- 

229 


230 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


crs'  Association  that  is  promoting  this  breed.  As  pointed  out 
in  the  previous  chapter,  be  careful  that  you  do  not  breed  toward 
fads  or  toward  an  abnormal  development  of  some  particular 
characteristic  which  may  be  unrelated  to  actual  production.  The 
ultimate  test  of  the  breed  will  be  its  ability  to  produce.  The 
points  on  the  score  card  are  valuable  chiefly  in  proportion  as  they 
have  a  direct  relation  to  the  ability  to  produce. 


■L^Ormsby   KoriHlvkc    La.l.      Fduricrn    ihn 
191U.      Ilulstt'iii-Fn'.si;ui  IniU. 


(laughters    in 


2.  —  Select  Young  Stock  Carefully 

The  young  stock  that  is  raised  in  the  herd  should  be  culled 
very  carefully  and  only  those  animals  raised  that  are  of  good 
type,  of  strong  constitution,  and  from  high-producing  dams.  No 
matter  how  uniform  is  the  foundation  stock,  the  offspring  will 
vary  to  a  considerable  extent  one  from  the  other  and  from  the 
parent  stock.      Improvement  comes  from  taking  advantage  of 


IMPROVING   DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH   BREEDING     231 

this  law  of  variation  and  selecting  those  individuals  that  most 
nearly  approach  the  ideal  type  or  that  are  improvements  over 
the  foundation  stock. 

The  variation  will  never  all  be  in  the  way  of  improvement. 
There  will  be  some  animals  in  each  generation  that  are  poorer 
individuals  than  the  foundation  stock  or  poorer  than  the  rest 
of  that  particular  generation.  These  are  the  variations  that  must 
be  culled. 

Occasionally,  variations  are  found  that  are  very  radical,  or 
entirely  different  from  the  parent  stock.  These  are  called  "sports" 
or  "mutations."  If  these  individuals  vary  too  greatly  from  the 
parent  stock,  their  blood  may  not  exhibit  that  strong  tendency 
to  reproduce  offspring  like  themselves  that  comes  from  a  long 
line  of  ancestors,  more  or  less  similar  to  each  other,  and  concen- 
tration of  certain  characteristics.  In  other  words,  sports,  or 
mutations,  seldom  produce  offspring  that  resemble  themselves 
very  closely.  Occasionally  improvement  has  come  by  breeding 
from  a  sport  or  a  mutation  that  represented  very  great  improve- 
ment over  the  foundation  stock.  Very  often,  however,  sports 
differ  in  an  undesirable  way  from  the  parent  stock,  or  their 
extreme  variation  is  shown  in  a  characteristic  that  does  not 
possess  great  value. 

1.  What  is  the  importance  of  variation  in  animal  breeding? 

Mu  :  196. 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  morphological  and  'physiological  vari- 

ation?   Mu  :  196-197. 

3.  What  is  meristic  variation?    Mu  :  198. 

4.  What  is  functional  variation?    Mu  :  199. 

5.  What  are  the  causes  of  variation?     Mu  :  210. 

3.  —  Select  Parents  That  Are  Not  Too  Dissimilar 

The  use  of  parents  with  similar  desirable  characteristics  will 
result  in  a  strengthening  of  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the 


232 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


parents  in  the  offspring.  But  strengthened  undesirable  char- 
acteristics will  be  shown  in  the  offspring,  if  the  undesirable 
characteristics  are  common  to  both  parents.  The  selection  of 
parents  that  are  dissimilar  results  in  a  breaking  up  of  character- 
istics and  often  in  a  nonuniform  type  in  the  second  generation 
or  even  more  commonly  in  the  third  generation.    It  is  advisable 


Fig.  72.  —  Mashe'rs  Galore,  8572.     Imported  Guernsey  bull. 


for  the  young  breeder  who  has  fairly  good  foundation  cows  to 
select  a  herd  sire  which  comes  from  stock  that  is  considerably 
better  than  the  cows  of  his  herd.  It  is  a  question,  however,  whether 
or  not  he  will  get  the  best  development  from  breeding  to  a  sire 
which  represents  extremely  high  production.  In  other  words,  it 
is  probably  better  to  breed  cows  that  are  capable  of  producing 
four  hundred  pounds  of  butter  a  year  to  sires  whose  ancestors 
have  produced  six  or  eight  hundred  pounds  of  butter  a  year, 


IMPROVING  DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH  BREEDING    233 

than  to  a  sire  whose  ancestors  have  produced  ten  to  twelve 
hundred  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year.  The  improvement  must  be 
gradual,  but  it  should  be  steady. 

The  breeding  of  animals  that  have  an  abnormally  developed 
characteristic  is  not  generally  as  desirable  as  the  breeding  of  those 
that  have  characteristics  considerably  better  than  the  average. 
To  illustrate,  if  we  were  mating  for  increased  size,  it  would  not 
be  well  to  use  the  largest  sire  that  we  could  obtain,  but  rather 
to  use  a  sire  that  was  larger  than  the  dam  with  which  we  intended 
to  mate  him.  A  very  abnormal  development  of  any  one  char- 
acteristic is  likely  to  mean  weakness  of  some  other  characteristic. 
The  best  and  sanest  development  of  the  herd  will  always  come 
from  constantly  breeding  to  a  sire  that  is  considerably  better 
than  the  cows,  rather  than  breeding  to  a  sire  which  is  an  extreme 
variation  from  the  cows  of  the  herd,  but  the  latter  may  sometimes 
result  in  extremely  high  production. 

4.  —  Breed  according  to  the  Law  of  Heredity 

It  is  a  law  of  all  breeding  that  like  produces  like,  or  that  indi- 
viduals will  produce  offspring  that  resemble  the  parents.  The 
valuation  of  breeding  stock  is  based  upon  this  law.  This  law 
works  most  systematically  and  most  efficiently  for  us  not  only 
when  we  have  selected  a  valuable  individual  that  we  expect  to 
produce  offspring  like  itself,  but  also  when  this  individual  has  a 
large  backing  of  ancestors  which  were  like  itself  and  hence  in  it 
the  power  of  heredity  has  been  strengthened  and  desirable  char- 
acteristics firmly  fixed.  The  individual  of  good  ancestry  is  sure 
in  a  very  large  percentage  of  cases  to  give  birth  to  offspring  which 
closely  resemble  itself.  Pure  breds  are  more  valuable  than  grade 
stock,  because  similar  animals  have  been  bred  together  for  so 
many  generations  that  certain  characteristics  are  fixed  and  re- 
produce themselves  always,  except  in  the  case  of  sports,  or  mu- 
tations. Grade  animals  that  have  been  crossed  with  several 
different  breeds  have  no  strong  blood  lines  tending  to  reproduce 
themselves.  The  grade  offspring  may  inherit  any  one  of  a  hundred 


234  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

different  characteristics,  many  of  which  are  undesirable.  The 
pure  bred  offspring  will  inherit  hundreds  of  similar  characteristics, 
most  of  which  are  desirable. 

In  breeding,  you  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  bringing  together 
the  characteristics  of  sire  and  dam  in  an  offspring,  the  result 
will  not  necessarily  be  the  combination  you  desire.     Many  who 


Fig.  73.  —  Auchenbrain  Toreador  (Imported),  said  to  be  the  best  bull  that 
ever  has  come  out  of  Scotland.    Record  priced  bull  of  the  AjTshire  breed. 


believe  in  crossbreeding  have  crossed  Jerseys  and  Holsteins 
expecting  to  get  offspring  that  would  give  as  much  milk  as  the 
Holsteins,  and,  at  the  same  time,  as  rich  milk  as  the  Jerseys. 
If  you  attempt  this,  you  are  just  as  likely  to  obtain  offspring  that 
will  give  as  httle  milk  as  the  Jerseys  and  as  low  testing  milk  as 
the  Holsteins  or  any  variation  between  these  two  extremes. 


IMPROVING  DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH  BREEDING    235 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  useful  and  valuable  forms  of  inheritance? 

Give  illustrations  of  each.     P  :  225. 

2.  Who  was  Mendel?    Explain  Mendel's  laws  of  breeding. 

Mu  :  138-144.     W  :  14-20. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  latent  hereditary  characteristics?    P  :  227. 

5.  —  Do  Not  Expect  to  Control  Sex 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  whether  or 
not  it  is  possible  to  control  the  sex  of  the  offspring  previous  to  its 
birth.  There  are  many  whims,  fancies,  and  superstitions  concern- 
ing this;  many  rules  that  superstitious  breeders  beheve  are  in- 
fallible. Up  to  the  present  time,  however,  the  best  scientific  re- 
search along  this  line  indicates  that  there  is  no  way  of  determining 
the  sex  of  an  individual  previous  to  its  birth. 

6.  —  Do  Not  Count  on  the  Inheritance  of 

Acquired  Characteristics 

Natural  characteristics,  such  as  the  ability  to  produce  milk  of 
a  certain  quality,  are  hereditary.  Characteristics  that  are  ac- 
quired after  birth  are  not  necessarily  transmittible.  For  many 
generations,  sheep  breeders  have  cut  off  the  tails  of  ewe  lambs  yet 
ewe  lambs  to-day  are  born  with  tails.  In  the  last  few  years,  there 
has  been  some  development  of  the  theory  that  acquired  character- 
istics are  hereditary.  Proof  in  regard  to  this  is  not  yet  at  hand, 
and  it  is  an  open  question,  the  settlement  of  which  the  producers 
will  await  with  great  interest. 

1.  What  is  telegony?     Has  it  any  importance  to  the  practical 

breeder?     Mu  :  16G-176. 

2.  What  is  xeniaf    Has  it  any  importance  to  the  practical  breeder? 

Mu :  176-178. 

7.  —  Be  Cautious  about  Inbreeding 

The  breeding  together  of  individuals  that  have  a  close  degree  of 
relationship  is  known  as  inbreeding.    Various  definitions  of  "in- 


236 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


breeding,"  "line  breeding,"  and  "in-and-in  breeding"  have  been 
proposed.  These  definitions  have  not  been  closely  adhered  to  in 
the  general  discussions  of  the  subject,  and  for  our  purpose  we  will 
consider  inbreedmg  as  simply  the  breeding  of  closely  related 
individuals.     There  is  a  great  deal  of  discussion  of  the  advantages 


ri.i.  74.  —  Typic 


and  disadvantages  of  inbreeding,  and  a    large  amount    of  data 
upon  each  side  of  the  argument. 

The  facts  in  regard  to  inbreeding  appear  to  be  these:  Inbreed- 
ing has  the  advantage  of  fixing  and  strengthening  the  power  of 
heredity  in  regard  to  individual  characteristics.     Inbreeding  has 


IMPROVING   DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH   BREEDING    237 

the  disadvantage  of  producing  offspring  that  may  be  constitu- 
tionally weak  and  less  fertile  than  the  parents.  Inbreeding  may 
also  intensify  and  strengthen  undesirable  hereditary  characteris- 
tics as  well  as  the  desirable  ones.  Moreover,  close  inbreeding 
may  result  in  bringing  out  some  lurking  undesirable  characteristics 


Fig.  75. 


Fine  type  of  Ayrshire  cow.     Note  milk  veins  and  well-shaped 
udder.     Rynogue  Lady  Peggy. 


that  have  not  appeared  in  known  previous  generations.  So  far  as 
scientific  data  can  help  us  at  the  present  time,  therefore,  it  appears 
to  be  safe  for  the  breeder  of  dairy  cattle  to  practice  inbreeding  to 
a  limited  extent,  if  he  thinks  exceptional  conditions  warrant  it. 
Inbreeding  should  be  resorted  to  only  when  you  have  a  very 


238  DAIRY   FARMING   PROJECTS 

desirable  animal,  whose  characteristics  you  wish  to  impress  as 
strongly  as  possil)le  upon  future  generations  of  calves.  To  be 
safe,  however,  inbreeding  must  always  be  accompanied  by  very 
rigid  selection  and  immediate  culling  of  individuals  that  are  con- 
stitutionally weak  or  are  likely  to  be  sterile. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  a  great  deal  of  the  improvement 
of  dairy  cattle  during  past  generations  has  come  as  a  result  of  in- 
breeding. The  famous  English  cattle  breeders  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  such  as  Robert  and  Charles  Colling,  Thomas  Bates,  and 
the  Booths,  all  practiced  inbreeding.  The  famous  Shorthorn 
Bull  "Favorite"  was  the  offspring  of  a  half  brother  and  half  sister. 
He  was  bred  upon  his  own  daughter,  granddaughter,  and  great 
granddaughter,  so  that  the  product  of  this  last  union  had  93.75% 
of  the  blood  of  "Favorite"  in  her  veins.  This  cow  was  afterwards 
bred  to  other  animals,  carrying  a  large  percentage  of  the  blood  of 
"Favorite"  and  yielded  valuable  offspring.  Nevertheless,  Colling, 
who  bred  these  animals  and  was  a  strong  advocate  of  inbreeding, 
•  once  crossed  his  stock  with  a  Galloway.  The  calves  from  this 
cross  realized  the  highest  prices.  Bates  inbred  his  herd  verj^  close- 
ly for  thirteen  years,  but  during  the  next  seventeen  years  he 
brought  in  fresh  blood  three  times.  It  is  said  that  he  did  this  only 
on  account  of  the  lessened  fertility  of  his  own  herd.  Many  other 
examples  could  be  cited  of  inbreeding,  not  only  among  cattle 
but  among  other  animals.  Darwin,  who  made  the  closest  study 
of  this  subject,  gave  as  his  conclusions  the  following:  "That  any 
evil  directly  follows  from  the  closest  inter-breeding  has  been  de- 
nied by  many  persons,  but  rarely  by  a  practical  breeder  and  never, 
as  far  as  I  know,-  by  one  who  has  largely  bred  animals  which  prop- 
agate their  kind  quickly.  Close  inter-breeding  often  induces 
steriHty.  The  evidence  immediately  to  be  given  convinces  me 
that  it  is  a  great  law  of  nature  that  all  organic  beings  profit  from 
an  occasional  cross  with  individuals  not  closely  related  to  them  in 
blood;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  long  continued  cross  inbreeding 
is  injurious." 

1.  Describe  Gentry's  work  in  inbreeding  swine  and  the  results 
which  he  has  obtained.     Mu  :  234. 


IMPROVING   DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH   BREEDING    239 
2.  What  is  the  effect  of  inbreeding  upon  prepotency?     Mu  :  241. 

8.  —  Avoid  Crossbreeding  or  Hybridizing 

By  crossbreeding,  or  hybridizing,  we  mean  breeding  together 
of  individuals  of  different  breeds.  The  experiences  of  practical 
dairy  farmers  and  of  scientific  investigators  indicate  that  cross- 
breeding is  never  desirable  in  dairy  cattle.  From  a  practical  stand- 
point, it  is  very  undesirable  among  pure  bred  dairy  cattle,  as  the 
offspring  could  not  be  registered  with  any  Association.  Cross- 
breeding results  in  a  very  great  variation  among  the  offspring. 
This  is  desirable  only  when  we  are  attempting  to  found  a  new  strain 
or  new  breed.  Crossbreeding  produces  variants.  In  animal 
breedmg  the  hybrids  resulting  from  crossbreeding  are  often 
sterile.  These  hybrids  also  can  not  be  depended  upon  to  breed 
true  and  perpetuate  their  own  characteristics.  Mendel  has  shown 
that  fifty  per  cent  of  such  hybrids  are  inconstant  in  perpetuating 
their  own  characteristics. 

9.  —  Take  Every  Advantage  of  Prepotency 

Breeders  commonly  observe  that  all  parents  are  not  equally 
powerful  in  transmitting  to  their  offspring  their  racial  character- 
istics. In  other  words,  the  offspring  seem  to  inherit  certain 
characteristics  more  strongly  from  one  parent  than  from  the 
other.  An  animal  that  is  able  to  impress  upon  its  offspring  its  own 
characteristics  to  a  very  strong  degree  is  said  to  be  prepotent. 
Whenever  we  purchase  a  bull  for  our  dairy  herd  and  select  an 
animal  with  an  especially  good  pedigree,  we  hope  that  he  will  be 
prepotent  and  that  his  offspring  will  receive  their  characteristics 
more  strongly  from  him  than  from  the  dam.  A  study  of  all  breeds 
indicates  that  many  individuals  stand  out  as  being  much  more 
prepotent  than  others.  These  are  known  as  the  great  sires  of  the 
breed.  They  include  such  individuals  as  "Pontiac  Korndyke" 
and  "Kmg  of  the  Pontiacs"  among  the  Holstems,  the  "Imported 
Jap"  and  many  other  famous  sires  among  the  Jerseys.  Unfor- 
tunately, we  cannot  determine  the  prepotency  of  a  sire  until  his 


240 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


first  daughters  are  tested.  For  this  reason,  we  may  use  a  very 
poor  sire  or  a  very  vahiable  sire  for  two  years  before  we  begm  to 
know  much  about  his  vahic  to  the  herd.  His  vahie,  however,  will 
be  indicated  to  some  extent  previous  to  this  time  by  the  degree 
to  which  he  impresses  upon  his  offspring  his  own  type  and  dairy 
form. 


Fig.  76,  —  Bella  II  du  Grand  Fort  36346.    Guernsey  cow.    Imported. 


1.  What  are  the  three  steps  in  breeding  given  by  Warren?     W  :  21. 

2.  Secure  a  five  generation  pedigree  blank  and  by  using  herd- 

books  run  out  the  pedigree  of  five  pure  bred  animals.     Use 
animals  from  your  own  herd  if  it  contains  pure  breds. 

3.  From  the  above  figure  out  the  percentage  of  the  blood  of  each 

ancestor  that  exists  in  the  animal  whose  pedigree  you  are 
studying. 


IMPROVING  DAIRY  HERD  THROUGH  BREEDING    241 

4.  How  many  different  kinds  of  pure  bred  dairy  cattle  can  be 

found  in  your  neighborhood? 

5.  Study  your  own  project  herd  as  to  the  following  characteristics: 

size,  color,  dairy  type,  capacity,  shape  of  udder,  productivity. 
In  what  characteristics  are  they  uniform?  In  which  are 
they  not  uniform?  How  does  youi  herd  sire  differ  from  the 
majority  of  the  cows? 


Fig.  77.  —  (^ueicus  Maid,  25(343,  Advanced  Registry  15U3.     Pure-bred 
Guernsey. 


6.  What  ideal  of  type  and  production  do  you  nave  xn  mind  for 

your  project  herd? 

7.  How  will  you  determine  whether  or  not  your  herd  sire  is  pre- 

potent? 

8.  If  he  is  strongly  prepotent,  will  you  continue  to  use  him  and 

breed  him  upon  his  own  daughters?     If  this  is  done,  what 
precautions  must  be  taken? 


242  DMRY  FARMINCl   PROJECTS 

9.  Do  you  know  of  any  examples  of  inbreeding  in  your  neighbor- 
hood?    What  were  the  results? 

10.  Do  you  know  of  any  cases  of  crossbreeding  in  your  neighbor- 

hood?    What  were  the  results? 

11.  What  is  the  difference  betioeen  germ  plasm  and  somatoplasm  ?     What  is 

the  function  of  each?     Mn  :  161. 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  crossbreeding?    Mu  :  244. 

13.  What  is  the  effect  of  crossbreeding  upon  variation?    Mu  :  248. 

14.  What  is  the  7nost  widely  distributed  and  most  useful  animal  hybrid? 

Mu  :  250. 

15.  What  is  a  hinny?     Mu  :  252. 

16.  What  important  economic  results  have  been  obtained  from  crossing  the 

zebu  and  cattle?    Mu  :  253. 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  important  improvements  which  have  been  brought 

about  through  breeding?     Mu  :  280-284. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
PREPARING  DAIRY  CATTLE  FOR  SHOW  OR  SALE 

1.  Have  cattle  in  good  flesh  at  the  time  of  selling 

2.  Clip  and  blanket  cattle  before  a  sale 

3.  Make  the  animal  attractive  to  the  eye 

4.  Do  not  milk  just  before  a  sale 

5.  Prepare  grade  cattle  as  well  as  pure  breds  for  a  sale  care- 

fully 

6.  Prepare  cattle  carefully  for  the  show  ring 

7.  Give  stock  to  be  sold  in  the  home  barn  every  reasonable 

advantage 

1.  Have  Cattle  in  Good  Flesh  at  the  Time  cf  Selling 

Any  animal  for  which  a  good  price  is  desired  should  be  in  good 
flesh  at  the  time  of  selling.  An  animal  that  is  in  fine  condition 
looks  better  and  is  larger  than  an  animal  in  poor  flesh.  The  pubUc 
is  always  willing  to  pay  more  money  for  such  an  animal  than  for 
one  that  is  in  lean  or  spare  condition.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  animal  should  be  excessively  fat  at  the  time  of  sale.  Some 
purchasers  will  discriminate  against  a  very  fat  animal.  The  sur- 
plus fat  is  expensive  to  put  on  and  an  extra  fat  animal  will  ordi- 
narily bring  no  more  than  one  which  is  just  in  good  condition. 
One  of  the  first  things  to  do  toward  putting  a  cow  into  fine  shape 
for  a  sale  is  to  get  rid  of  any  lice  with  which  she  may  be  infested. 
A  lousy  cow  never  looks  well  and  is  expensive  to  fatten  because 
of  the  amount  of  nourishment  that  the  lice  are  taking. 

A  cow  that  is  being  culled  from  the  herd  because  she  is  in  poor 
condition  physically,  is  likely  to  be  tubercular,  is  a  nonproducer, 
or  for  any  other  physical  reason,  should  not  be  conditioned  for 

243 


244  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

sale.  As  soon  as  you  are  sure  that  such  an  animal  should  be 
eliminated,  it  is  best  to  get  rid  of  her  at  once.  If  diseased,  every 
day  that  she  stays  in  the  herd,  she  is  a  menace  to  the  rest  of  the 
cows.  If  in  poor  physical  condition,  it  will  probably  be  exceedingly 
expensive  to  condition  her  for  sale.  Such  an  animal  should  be 
sold  for  slaughter.  Conditioning  might  enable  one  to  sell  such 
an  animal  for  other  purposes,  as  the  extra  flesh  will  sometimes 
cover  up  physical  defects.  This,  however,  is  not  only  a  dishonest 
practice  and  therefore  objectionable,  but  it  would  ordinarily  be 
unprofitable  on  account  of  the  extra  expense  involved. 

2.  —  Clip  and  Blanket  Cattle  before  a  Sale 

Cattle  that  have  been  closely  clipped  always  look  better  than 
cattle  with  long,  shaggy  coats.  To  have  cattle  in  the  best  con- 
dition, however,  they  should  be  clipped  about  two  weeks  before 
the  sale  so  that  the  hair  will  begin  to  grow  out  again  and  cover 
up  any  small  inequalities  in  the  clipping.  At  this  time  they  also 
look  better  to  the  purchaser  than  do  cattle  which  are  just  clipped. 
For  a  week  or  two  before  the  show  or  sale,  it  is  often  desirable 
to  blanket  the  animals.  This  gives  them  a  smoother  coat,  a  softer 
skin,  and  more  skin  secretions. 

3.  —  Make  the  Animal  Attractive  to  the  Eye 

There  are  many  attentions  which  can  be  given  to  special  body 
parts  that  will  make  the  animal  particularly  attractive  to  the  eye. 
After  the  animal  has  been  clipped,  the  horns  should  be  scraped 
and  poUshed  and  care  taken  to  see  that  the  hair  is  clipped  closely 
around  the  base  of  each.  Many  breeders  braid  the  animal's  tail 
for  a  few  days  previous  to  the  sale,  then  unbraid  it  and  comb  it 
out  carefully  just  before  the  sale.  This  gives  a  fluffy,  attractive 
looking  brush  on  the  day  of  the  sale.  Just  before  the  sale,  the 
brush  of  the  tail  is  usually  washed  out  carefully. 

4.  —  Do  Not  Milk  Just  before  a  Sale 

As  prospective  purchasers  judge  a  dairy  cow  very  largely  from 
the  character  of  her  udder,  it  is  often  desirable  not  to  milk  out 


PREPARING  DAIRY  CATTLE  FOR  SHOW  OR  SALE   245 

the  udder  of  a  cow  at  the  last  milking  time  just  previous  to  the 
sale.  The  udder  will  then  be  distended  and  show  its  form  to  the 
best  advantage.  Leaving  the  udder  full  is  a  very  common  practice, 
is  recognized  as  such  by  most  purchasers,  and  is  not  considered 
dishonest  in  any  way  as  it  is  not  done  with  intent  to  deceive. 
An  empty  udder  never  shows  its  true  form  to  the  best  advantage, 
and  the  seller  is  justified  in  allowing  it  to  fill  with  milk  in  order 
to  show  this  true  form. 

Some  salesmen,  however,  allow  the  udder  to  go  unmilked  or 
only  partially  milked  for  two  or  three  milking  periods.  Some  go 
so  far  as  to  seal  up  the  ends  of  the  teats  with  some  preparation 
so  that  the  milk  will  not  leak  out.  This  is  an  undesirable  practice 
as  it  may  result  in  injury  to  the  cattle,  it  is  liable  to  result  in  a 
decrease  of  milk  for  that  lactation  period,  and  it  gives  the  udder 
the  appearance  of  being  much  larger  and  fuller  than  it  normally 
is.  A  sharp  line  of  distinction,  in  short,  should  be  drawn  between 
the  allowable  practice  of  letting  the  udder  fill  to  the  extent 
that  it  will  have  its  normal  appearance  at  milking  time,  and  the 
objectionable  practice  of  forcing  the  udder  to  hold  its  milk  for 
so  long  a  period  that  it  becomes  congested,  swollen,  and  abnor- 
mal in  condition. 

5.  —  Prepare  Grade  Cattle  as  Well  as  Pure  Breds 
for  a  Sale  Carefully 

It  is  profitable  to  prepare  grade  cattle  as  well  as  pure  bred  cattle 
for  a  sale.  The  purchaser  of  live  stock  will  pay  more  for  a  hand- 
some individual  in  fine  condition  than  he  will  for  an  individual 
just  as  "typy"  but  in  poor  condition.  In  every  other  hne  of  busi- 
ness this  same  tendency  is  recognized.  The  automobile  salesman 
never  thinks  of  selUng  a  muddy  car,  nor  does  the  clothing  sales- 
man expect  to  sell  a  suit  of  clothes  that  is  wrinkled  and  unpressed. 
No  more  should  the  Uve  stock  salesman  expect  to  obtain  a  good 
price  for  a  cow  with  a  rough,  shaggy  coat,  a  cow  that  is  in  poor 
condition,  or  a  cow  whose  flanks  are  covered  with  manure.  Labor 
expense  in  preparing  stock  for  a  sale  will  generally  pay  better 


246  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

returns  per  hour  than  any  otlier  hibor  expended  on  the  farm. 
Well  prepared  and  conditioned  stock  will  often  bring  from  twenty 
to  one  hundred  dollars  a  head  more  money  than  will  poorly  pre- 
pared stock  that  may  be  just  as  valuable. 

6.  —  Prepare  Cattle  Carefully  for  the  Show  Ring 

Stock  should  be  prepared  for  the  show  ring  as  carefully  as  it 
is  prepared  for  public  sale.  Preparing  cattle  for  exhibition  is 
almost  a  trade  in  itself.  There  are  many  special  practices  in- 
volving technical  details  of  conditioning,  cleaning,  washing,  and 
blanketing,  that  can  best  be  learned  from  the  professional  ex- 
hibitor. Just  as  important  is  the  manner  of  presenting  the  animal 
to  the  judges  for  their  inspection.  The  exhibitor  soon  learns  the 
best  way  of  leading  and  turning  the  animal  and  discovers  how  to 
make  the  animal  stand  so  as  to  show  off  to  the  best  advantage. 
A  close  study  of  the  methods  employed  at  any  one  of  our  state 
fairs  or  live  stock  expositions  will  pay  the  student  who  is  interested 
or  who  intends  to  exhibit  cattle  in  show  rings. 

7. —  Give  Stock  to  Be  Sold  in  the  Home  Barn  Every 
Reasonable  Advantage 

Many  breeders  sell  most  of  their  stock  at  the  home  barn  to  visit- 
ing purchasers.  It  is  not  generally  economical  to  keep  all  of  the 
herd  in  show  condition.  Only  the  few  breeding  establishments 
that  have  the  highest  valued  individuals  can  profitably  do  so. 
Every  breeder,  however,  can  follow  a  few  practices  that  will  aid 
in  obtaining  good  prices. 

All  animals  that  are  for  sale  should  be  kept  where  the  prospective 
purchaser  can  obtain  a  good  view  of  them.  They  should  be  in 
the  lightest  and  cleanest  part  of  the  bam.  As  explained  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter,  it  is  desirable  to  place  the  cattle  in  such  a  way  that 
the  platform  on  which  they  stand  is  from  two  to  four  inches  higher 
than  the  platform  on  which  the  purchaser  is  to  stand.  This  shows 
off  the  animals  to  l^etter  advantage.  If  you  are  selling  young  stock, 
it  is  a  very  good  practice  to  have  the  dam  and  the  sire  m  good  con- 


PREPARING  DAIRY  CATTLE  FOR  SHOW  OR  SALE    247 

dition  and  to  show  these  before  showing  the  young  stock.  Most 
purchasers  realize  that  it  is  hard  to  decide  from  the  looks  of  a 
calf  how  "typy"  an  individual  it  will  be  when  fully  grown.  If 
the  immediate  sire  and  dam  are  good  individuals  and  so  impress 
the  purchaser,  he  is  predisposed  to  look  with  favor  on  the  calf. 
In  other  words,  if  the  immediate  sire  and  dam  are  clean  and  in 
good  condition  and  show  to  good  advantage,  they  help  to  create 
a  favorable  impression  on  the  calf's  prospective  purchaser,  and 
this  impression  often  results  in  a  sale. 

1.  If  you  have  not  already  done  so,  clip  the  flanks  of  all  your 

dairy  cows. 

2.  If  the  time  of  year  is  suitable,  clip  each  young  animal  and  spend 

a  few  minutes  per  day  for  one  month  putting  it  in  good  con- 
dition for  a  show  ring  or  sale. 

3.  Visit  a  public  sale  of  cattle ;  study  the  condition  of  the  animals 

and  its  relation  to  the  selUng  price. 

4.  At  the  next  agricultural  fair  you  attend  make  a  study  of  the 

methods  used  by  professional  show  men  in  preparing  ani- 
mals for  the  show  ring. 

5.  Do  your  cows  show  off  to  advantage  in  your  stable? 

6  How  could  the  stable  be  improved  as  a  sales  stable?  What 
would  be  the  probable  cost?  Would  it  pay  if  you  had  a 
herd  of  twenty  pure  bred  dairy  cows? 

7.  Each  boy  in  the  class  should  prepare  an  animal  for  the  show 

ring.  On  a  given  day  these  animals  should  all  be  assembled 
at  the  school,  or  some  other  central  point,  and  judged  by  a 
practical  cattle  breeder  as  to  which  animal  is  the  best  fitted 
for  the  show  or  sales  ring. 

8.  Why  is  it  more  necessary  to  prepare  cattle  for  an  auction  than  for  a 

private  sale?    VaP  :  297. 

9.  How  does  the  time  of  freshening  affect  the  sale  price  of  cattle  at  an 

auction?    VaP  :  297. 

10.  How  should  an  animal  be  taught  to  stand  in  the  sales  ring?   VaP  :  295. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ADVERTISING  AND  MARKETING  DAIRY  CATTLE 
AND  OTHER  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

1.  Advertising'  in  agricultural  periodicals 

(1)  Consider  the  breed  journals 

(2)  Consider  the  general  dairy  papers 

(3)  Use  good  pictures 

2.  Use  attractiva  stationery 

3.  Be  businesslike  in  your  correspondence 

4.  Remember  that  satisfied  customers  are  the  best  advertise- 

ment 

5.  Study  the  market  for  dairy  cattle 

6.  Consider  public   sales  as  means   of   disposing  of    surplus 

animals 

7.  Find  or  develop  profitable  markets  for  dairy  products 

1.  —  Advertising  in  Agricultural  Periodicals 

(1)  Consider  the  breed  journals.  —  The  breeder  of  puie  bred 
dairy  cattle  will  find  his  best  market  through  advertising  in  the 
journal  or  periodical  that  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of  his  breed. 
This  is  notably  true  if  he  is  breeding  stock  of  high  quality  that  will 
bring  an  exceptionally  high  price.  The  public  approached  in  this 
way  is  composed  entirely  of  persons  interested  in  that  particular 
breed.  Although  the  circulation  of  the  journal  may  be  somewhat 
limited,  yet  the  number  of  possible  buyers  reached  is  large. 

(2)  Consider  the  general  dairy  papers.  —  Another  good  ad- 
vertising medium  is  the  general  agricultural  or  dairy  press.  There 
are  a  great  many  papers  of  this  sort  bemg  pubhshed.  Some  have 
a  circulation  confined  to  a  single  state,  or  group  of  states,  and  others 

248 


ADVERTISING  AND  MARKETING  DAIRY  CATTLE    249 

are  national  in  character.  ]\Iany  of  these  may  be  useful  to  the 
dairyman  who  has  surplus  stock  to  sell.  If  you  have  medium- 
priced  or  grade  animals,  you  will  usually  find  it  more  to  your  ad- 
vantage to  advertise  in  the  general  agricultural  press  than  if  you 
have  pure  bred  stock.  The  medium-priced  or  grade  animals  appeal 
to  a  much  larger  number  of  buyers.  Local  agricultural  papers, 
such  as  the  local  farm  bureau  or  extension  service  news  sheets,  are 
often  of  value  in  disposing  of  stock.  For  medium-priced  pure 
bred  and  grade  stock,  the  best  markets  are  generally  to  be  found 
in  the  immediate  locality.  Advertising  in  such  papers  is  relatively 
cheap  and  well  within  the  means  of  the  man  who  has  only  a  few 
head  of  cattle  to  sell. 

(3)  Use  good  pictures.  —  A  good  picture  of  the  stock  for  sale, 
or  of  the  herd  sire,  or  of  some  of  the  better  animals  in  the  herd, 
adds  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  an  advertisement.  The  taking 
of  such  pictures  is  an  art  in  itself.  The  larger  breeders  employ 
very  high-priced  photographers,  who  often  come  long  distances 
and  spend  hours  of  time  to  get  a  good  picture  of  a  single  animal. 
You  can  not  afford  this  but  you  can,  by  working  at  the  problem, 
secure  very  good  photographs  that  will  aid  in  making  up  adver- 
tisements or  that  will  be  worth  while  to  enclose  in  a  letter  to  a 
prospective  buyer. 

The  amateur  photographer  should  observe  several  points  that 
have  been  developed  by  experience.  Nearly  all  good  pictures  of 
cattle  are  taken  from  a  position  at  one  side  and  somewhat  behind 
the  animal.  This  accentuates  the  wedge  form  which  is  so  desir- 
able in  the  dairy  cow.  In  a  way,  it  perhaps  gives  an  untrue  picture. 
Nevertheless,  this  method  has  been  carried  on  for  so  long  a  time 
and  so  many  pictures  of  dairy  cattle  have  been  printed  in  this 
way,  that  it  seems  necessary  for  the  breeder  of  to-day  to  take 
his  photographs  in  this  particular  manner  in  order  to  make  them 
comparable  with  the  photographs  with  which  we  are  all  famihar. 

Pictures  of  dairy  cattle  should  never  show  a  background  that 
detracts  from  the  animal  itself.  Study  the  pictures  in  your  breed 
journal  to  determine  what  background  is  most  pleasing  to  the 
eye  and  what  one  it  is  possible  for  you  to  obtain  near  your  barn 


250  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

that  will  be  effective.  Cattle  should  always  be  in  good  condition 
and  well  groomed  when  the  picture  is  taken.  They  should  be 
standing  squarely  on  all  four  legs  and  in  a  normal  pose.  A  fair 
degree  of  skill  in  judging  light  and  distances  and  a  cheap  camera, 
costing  from  five  to  twenty  dollars,  will  enable  you  to  obtain 
pictures  that  will  be  worth  printing  in  advertisements  and  that 
will  be  a  great  help  in  selling  stock. 

2.  —  Use  Good  Stationery  with  an  Attractive  Letterhead 
and  a  Small  Number  of  Pictures 

The  use  of  attractive  stationerj^  of  good  quality  is  of  great  aid 
in  selUng  any  article.  The  name  of  the  farm,  the  name  of  the 
owner,  and  the  post  office  address  should  be  printed  plainly  at 
the  top.  There  should  also  be  a  small  amount  of  space  devoted 
to  pictures  or  records  of  the  best  individuals  in  the  herd.  The  use 
of  large  sheets  made  of  rather  smooth  print  paper  and  covered 
with  the  pictures  or  records  of  animals  in  the  herd  is  confusing 
to  the  prospective  buyer,  is  in  poor  taste,  and  is  comparable  to 
distributing  printed  broadsides  rather  than  to  sending  carefully 
written  business  letters.  The  average  dairyman  or  other  business 
man  prefers  his  letter  to  give  him  a  few  concise,  pertinent  facts, 
rather  than  a  whole  broadside  of  Uterature  concerning  the  breed. 

3.  —  Be  Businesslike  in  Your  Correspondence 

Do  not  advertise  unless  you  are  prepared  to  take  care  of  the 
correspondence  that  may  result,  and  to  take  care  of  it  promptly. 
All  correspondence  should  be  answered  courteously  and  fully, 
but  briefly,  and  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  time  that  it  is 
received.  You  should  remember  that  if  you  are  busy,  so  are 
others;  that  your  correspondent's  time  is  as  valuable  to  him  as 
is  your  time  to  you.  He  will  appreciate  a  prompt  reply,  and  a 
reply  that  will  give  him  at  a  glance  the  information  for  which  he 
asks.  Its  brevity  or  conciseness  should  never,  however,  result  in 
discourtesy  of  wording  or  brusqueness. 


ADVERTISING  AND  MARKETING  DAIRY  CATTLE         251 


K.rg  S^.  D.K0I 
<rNc  Seois  DtKoL 


SeCIS        PONTIAC 


The    dam    o(     Kloj 


COLUMBIA    FARM 

HOLSTEIN  CATTLE 
NORTH   CHATHAM,    N.    V. 


_iJ 


Colombia  P.rm. 


252  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

4.  —  Remember  That  Satisfied  Customers  Are  the 
Best  Advertisements 
Always  handle  each  sale,  purchase,  or  other  business  deal  in 
such  a  way  that  the  man  with  whom  you  have  the  transaction 
will  be  satisfied  that  you  are  a  man  of  honor  and  fair  deaUng. 
A  reputation  for  dealing  squarely  is  worth  more  than  many 
dollars  spent  in  advertising.  Along  with  this  should  go  a  repu- 
tation for  honest  work  in  connection  with  the  internal  affairs  of 
your  business.  There  is  always  an  opportunity  for  an  official 
record  to  be  made  under  dishonest  conditions.  There  will  always 
be  some  breeders  in  any  association  whose  records  will  not  be 
given  full  credence  by  many  of  the  other  breeders.  There  will 
always  be,  on  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  breeders  whose  cows 
will  bring  an  excellent  price,  even  though  their  herds  may  never 
hold  any  world's  records,  because  of  pubhc  opinion  that  such 
breeders  are  honorable  and  that  their  records  have  been  made 
under  honest  conditions.  If  you  intend  to  build  up  a  good  busi- 
ness in  selling  dairy  cattle,  you  should  not  be  content  with  a 
reputation  for  mere  honesty  in  the  letter  of  the  law,  but  your 
reputation  should  be  such  that  you  are  known  not  to  resort  to 
legal  quibbles  or  technicalities  to  avoid  responsibility  that  the 
average  man  would  consider  it  only  fair  for  you  to  meet. 

5.  —  Study  the  Market  for  Dairy  Cattle 
In  order  to  keep  well  posted  on  the  values  of  dairy  cattle,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  breeder  to  attend  public  sales  as  often  as  pos- 
sible and  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  private  sales  made  by 
his  fellow  breeders.  Every  breeder  who  is  operating  on  a  good 
business  basis  will,  of  course,  take  an  inventory  at  least  once 
every  year.  He  should  compare  the  subsequent  sales  with  his 
inventory  so  as  to  determine  whether  he  is  inventorying  his  own 
stock  too  liigh  or  too  low.  Personal  interest  in  and  enthusiasm 
for  certain  individuals  or  certain  Hues  of  breeding  may  blind 
the  breeder  to  the  weaknesses  of  his  own  product.  When  cattle 
are  sold,  the  price  will  be  determined  not  by  the  breeder,  but  by 
puVilic  opinion  of  that  type  of  individual  which  is  for  sale.    If  the 


ADVERTISING  AND  MARKETING  DAIRY  CATTLE      253 

breeder's  opinion  is  at  variance  with  the  public  estimate,  it  may- 
be necessary  for  the  breeder  to  change  his  ideas  and  his  methods 
in  order  to  do  business. 

A  good  way  to  acquire  good  judgment  as  to  the  price  that 
dairy  cattle  will  bring  is  to  study  a  sales  catalogue  previous  to 
the  sale,  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  price  that  you  think  each 
individual  will  bring  in  the  ring,  and  to  check  your  estimate  by 
the  actual  selling  price.  The  breeder  of  grade  stock  can  profitably 
spend  considerable  time  each  year  at  farm  auctions  where  grade 
stock  is  sold,  in  estimating,  in  much  the  same  way  as  indicated 
above,  the  probable  selling  price  of  each  animal  as  it  is  led  into 
the  ring.  A  little  practice  in  this  way  will  do  much  to  cultivate 
accurate  judgment  in  regard  to  prices,  and  may  save  the  breeder 
much  money  both  in  selling  and  buying. 

6.  —  Consider  Public  Sales  as  Means  of 

Disposing  of  Surplus  Animals 
A  well-advertised  public  sale  insures  to  the  dairyman,  who 
consigns  cattle,  fair  priiies  for  his  stock.  The  prices  paid  at  such 
a  sale  represent  the  consensus  of  other  dairymen  or  breeders  as 
to  the  value  of  the  stock.  The  breeder,  who  lives  at  some  distance 
from  other  breeders  of  the  same  grade  of  stock,  who  lives  some 
distance  from  the  railroad,  or  whose  farm  is  otherwise  inacces- 
sible to  the  buying  public,  will  generally  find  it  much  to  his  ad- 
vantage to  consign  stock  to  a  public  sale.  But  he  should  never 
consign  to  a  public  sale  individuals  that  are  poor  in  type  or  badly 
blemished.  The  public  in  attendance  at  the  sale  will  judge  his 
entire  herd  to  some  extent  at  least  from  the  representatives  he 
offers  for  sale.  If  you  consign  stock  for  sale,  your  offering  should 
be  considered  as  an  advertisement  of  your  herd  and  you  should 
be  willing  to  have  it  looked  upon  as  typical  of  your  animals. 

7.  —  Find  or  Develop  Profitable  Markets  for 

Dairy  Products 

Dairy  products  are  generally  marketed  in  one  of  two  ways: 
(1)  as  special  product  to  a  special  trade;  or  (2)  as  general  product 


254 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


in  conjunction  with  all  the  dairymen  of  the  neighborhood.  The 
specialized  product  marketed  to  a  special  trade  ordinarily  brings 
a  price  somewhat  in  advance  of  that  of  the  general  product.  The 
cost  of  marketing  such  a  specialized  product,  however,  is  much 
higher  than  that  of  such  a  general  product,  and  may  be  so  ex- 
cessive that  the  actual  net  profit  is  less  than  for  the  general  prod- 
uct. Individual  dairymen  have  developed  special  markets  for 
butter,  soft  cheeses,  milk,  cream,  and  certified  milk.    All  of  these 


Fig.  79. 


Milk  cans  brought  to  the  macadam  road  and  collected  there  by 
motor  truck  for  transport  to  a  central  creamery. 


are  in  direct  competition  with  standard  grades  of  the  same  prod- 
uct that  have  been  manufactured,  or  processed,  in  such  a  way 
that  they  are  uniform  in  quality  and  generally  of  uniformly 
good  quality.  It  is  difficult  to  find  a  special  trade  that  will  pay 
any  considerable  percentage  of  increase  over  the  regular  price 
for  this  specialized  product.  Unless  a  considerable  percentage  of 
such  increase  can  be  secured,  it  is  generally  unprofitable  for  the 
farmer  to  undertake  selling  through  the  specialized  market. 
Breeders  of  pure  bred  stock  sometimes  succeed  in  obtaining  a 
special  market  for  their  cream  in  such  a  way  that,  although  it 


ADVERTISING  AND   MARKETING   DAIRY  CATTLE    255 

may  not  bring  them  quite  as  much  even  as  would  the  whole 
milk,  yet  because  of  the  high  value  of  the  skim  milk  for  raising 
the  young  stock,  they  are  willing  to  make  a  sacrifice. 

The  dairyman  who  markets  his  milk  to  milk  dealers  in  con- 
junction with  many  of  his  neighbors  through  a  general  associa- 
tion, or  to  a  public  butter  factory  or  cheese  factory,  can  improve 


Fig.  80.  —  Alucadani  roads  are  free  of  snow  early  in  the  sjjrnifi,,  fnmish  a 
hard  road  bed,  and  improve  the  marketing  facilities  for  the  entire  region 
throughout  the  year. 


his  market  only  through  working  with  all  of  his  neighbors  to 
improve  the  product,  if  this  is  necessary,  or  to  secure  higher 
prices  by  other  just  means.  The  dairymen  of  America  are  just 
begmning  to  learn  the  value  of  cooperation  in  the  sale  of  their 
products,  as  well  as  in  the  purchase  of  their  raw  materials.  The 
years  1920  to  1923  have  been  bringing  forth  the  development  of 
cooperative  associations  among  dairymen  which  bid  fair  to  rival 


256  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

in  size  and  importance  the  greatest  cooperative  organizations  of 
the  United  States. 

1.  Study  any  issue  of  an  agricultural  journal  devoted  exclusively 

to  one  breed  of  cattle.  Select  the  six  most  attractive  adver- 
tisements. Give  reasons  why  they  appeal  to  you  more 
strongly  than  do  the  others.  Study  the  pictures  of  animals 
in  the  advertisements.  What  are  the  most  attractive  back- 
grounds? What  are  the  least  effective  backgrounds?  Find 
a  location  near  your  own  stable  where  you  have  an  attractive 
background  for  picture  making  and  also  have  favorable 
lighting. 

2.  Plan  a  letterhead  for  your  dairy  farm. 

3.  Visit  a  sale  of  pure  bred  cattle.     Study  the  pedigrees  in  the 

sales  catalogue  and  as  each  animal  is  led  into  the  ring  esti- 
mate the  selUng  price.  Record  the  actual  selling  price  when 
sold.  Figure  your  percentage  of  error  on  each  sale,  and 
whether  or  not  your  judgment  was  better  on  the  last  five 
sales  than  on  the  first  five. 

4.  Where  are  the  nearest  pubUc  sales  of  pure  bred  cattle  held  in 

your  state? 

5.  Are  there  any  cooperative  organizations  among  the  dairymen 

of  your  locaUty?  What  is  the  purpose  of  each  and  what  is 
it  accomplishing? 

6.  What  is  the  Dairymen's  League?     What  is  its  purpose?    Has  it  sux;- 

ceedecl  in  this  purpose? 

7.  What  European  country  is  noted  for  its  cooperative  marketing  of  dairy 

products? 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING 

1.  Do  not  put  too  much  stock  in  the  pasture 

2.  Do  not  turn  the  stock  into  pasture  too  early 

3.  Mow  the  weeds  and  the  brush 

4.  Manure  and  Hme  part  of  the  pasture  each  year 

5.  Alternate  pastures 

6.  Consider  pasturing  in  rotation  and  in  temporary  pastures 

7.  Reseed  with   permanent   pasture  mixtures  when  necessary 

8.  Keep  the  pasture  fences  tight 

9.  Count  the  cost  before  using  soiling  crops  in  place  of  or  to 

supplement  pastures 


Fig.  81.  —  A  river-bottom  pasture  in  the  Connecticut  River  valley.  Sub- 
irrigation  from  the  hillsides  probably  keeps  this  supplied  with  moisture 
throughout  the  summer. 

257 


258  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

The  greatest  assets  of  a  dairy  country  are  its  grasslands  for 
the  production  of  hay  and  its  pastures.  There  is  no  time  of  year 
when  we  can  feed  a  cow  so  cheaply  as  when  she  is  on  pasture. 
If  stock  could  be  pastured  the  year  round  and  all  milk  and  milk 
products  could  be  produced  from  pasture  feeding,  they  would 
be  much  cheaper  than  now.  Pasture  is  the  natural  food  of  the 
dairy  cow.  It  constitutes  a  balanced  ration  in  itself.  It  furnishes 
feed  without  the  expenditure  of  any  appreciable  amount  of  human 
labor.  Pastures  deserve  more  attention  from  the  dairyman  than 
they  have  yet  received.  Our  pastures  represent  a  great  natural 
resource  that  is  being  slowly  depleted  and  that  deserves  the 
attention  of  conservationists. 

1.  —  Do  Not  Put  Too  Much  Stock  in  the  Pasture 

The  pasture  should  never  at  any  season  of  the  year  be  over- 
stocked. Study  your  pasture  carefully  to  determine  how  much 
stock  it  will  carry  efficiently,  and  then  watch  the  pasture  to  see 
that  at  no  time  of  the  year  it  is  pastured  too  closely.  Pasturing 
too  large  a  herd  ruins  much  of  the  pasture  grass,  weakens  much 
of  it,  and  makes  it  very  slow  to  recuperate  after  being  gnawed 
off,  whereas  if  the  pasture  is  stocked  with  a  little  less  than  full 
capacity,  there  will  always  be  plenty  of  grass  with  considerable 
new  growth  ready  for  the  cows  to  feed  upon.  The  small  plants 
will  not  be  clipped  so  close  to  the  ground,  will  recuperate  more 
quickly,  and  will  stay  in  good  condition  for  years  to  come.  Many 
dairymen,  who  have  abundant  pasture  for  twenty  or  twenty-five 
cows  throughout  the  year,  get  the  misconceived  idea  that  they 
can  economically  pasture  two  or  three  more  cows  than  the  number 
suited  to  the  capacity  of  the  pasture.  As  a  result,  the  pasture 
is  clipped  too  close,  is  gradually  killed  out,  and  becomes  infested 
with  weeds  so  that  new  growth  is  hindered  or  prevented.  So 
instead  of  having  twenty-five  cows  in  the  pasture  and  plenty  of 
feed  for  them  all,  such  dairymen  attempt  to  pasture  twenty- 
seven  or  more  cows  with  the  result  that  they  do  not  receive  much 
more  than  half  that  they  need.    This  means  that  the  stock  grows 


CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    259 

thin  or  must  be  fed  considerable  quantities  of  grain  or  forage 
to  keep  them  in  the  condition  that  the  pasture  normally  grazed 
would  produce. 


2.  —  Do  Not  Turn  the  Stock  into  Pasture  Too  Early 

Cattle   should   never  be  turned   into   pasture   for   continuous 
feeding  until  the  grass  is  well  advanced  and  there  is  an  abund- 


FiG.  82.  —  An  cxccUci 


4  one  pasture  producing  an  abundance  of  blue 
grass. 


ance  of  feed  for  them  to  eat.  In  most  dairy  regions,  this  will  be 
no  earlier  than  the  fifteenth  of  May.  If  stock  is  turned  on  pasture 
before  this,  the  young  grass  is  eaten  down  too  close  and  the  tender 
shoots  weakened,  or  even  killed  out,  to  the  same  extent  that  it 
would  be  if  pastured  by  too  many  cattle.  Close  cropping  of  the 
pasture,  which  seemingly  does  not  harm  it  at  the  time,  may 
weaken  the  plants  and  bare  the  roots  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
plants  will  be  killed  in  the  hot  dry  season  of  midsummer. 


260  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

3.  —  Mow  the  Weeds  and  Brush 

In  pasturing,  cows  are  constantly  selecting  the  plants  that 
they  relish  and  leaving  those  they  do  not  like.  As  a  consequence, 
there  is  a  constant  removal  of  the  best  plants  while  the  poorest 
pasture  plants  flourish  and  multiply.  This  result  can  only  be 
counteracted  by  mowing  the  weeds  at  least  once  a  j'ear. 

Many  of  our  pastures  during  the  last  generation  became  very 


Fig.  83.  —  A  New  Hampshire  pasture  where  brush  needs  cutting. 


badly  infested  with  thorn  brush.  Many  are  now  becoming  very 
badl^  infested  with  brakes,  paintbrush,  or  orange  hawkweed, 
Canada  thistles,  small  wild  apple  trees,  and  weeds  of  various 
kinds.  To  eradicate  these,  all  pastures  should  be  mowed  with  a 
mowing  machine,  if  this  is  possible,  just  before  haying,  or  before 
the  weeds  go  to  seed.  This  mowing  may  be  done  on  rainy  days 
or  during  weather  when  the  hay  harvest  can  not  be  carried  on. 
The  mowed  weeds  drop  to  the  ground  and  form  a  light  mulch, 


CARING   FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    261 

which  protects  the  new  grass,  and  encourages  it  to  grow  more 
vigorously  than  it  would  do  otherwise  during  the  dry  period. 

Much  of  our  pasture  land  is  too  rough  to  be  mowed  with  a 
machine.  The  care  and  improvement  of  such  pasture  is  difficult. 
But  mowing  may  be  done  by  hand  at  odd  times  during  the  sum- 
mer. Sheep  may  be  pastured  to  a  limited  extent,  as  they  will 
sometimes  remove  the  weeds  and  small  thorn  bushes.  Such 
pasture  too  may  be  helped  by  fertilizing  and  liming,  so  that 
the  natural  pasture  plants  will  get  sufficient  growth  to  kill  out 
the  weeds. 

1.  Of  what  is  moss  in  a  pasture  a  sign?     How  may  it  be  eradi- 
cated?    Li :  378. 

4.  —  Manure  and  Lime  Part  of  the  Pasture  Each  Year 

A  small  part  of  the  manure  produced  on  the  farm  can  profitably 
be  used  on  the  pasture  each  year.  The  dairyman  should  system- 
atically plan  to  manure  the  part  of  the  pasture  that  is  becoming 
most  weedy,  or  the  section  where  the  feed  seems  to  be  getting 
especially  short.  If  there  do  not  seem  to  be  sufficient  grass  roots 
ahve  to  make  use  of  the  manure,  and  to  produce  good  feed  after 
fertilizing,  some  seeding  should  be  done.  After  the  pasture  land  is 
manured,  the  cows  for  the  rest  of  that  season,  or  sometimes  longer, 
will  not  graze  where  the  manure  was  spread.  This  will  give  the 
plants  an  opportunity  to  grow  up,  develop  a  full  root  system,  and 
establish  a  good  strong  sod.  Manure  should  be  applied  to  pastures 
very  lightly,  generally  at  the  rate  of  not  more  than  ten  tons  per 
acre.  The  best  time  to  apply  manure  is  in  the  spring,  or  at  least 
before  the  first  of  August.  If  the  manure  is  put  on  early,  it  will 
protect  the  small  grass  plants  through  the  season  that  is  most 
destructive  to  them,  namely,  the  hot  months  of  July  and  August, 
and  will  give  them  an  opportunity  to  make  a  considerable  growth 
before  the  next  pasture  season.  This  is  also  the  time  of  year 
when  it  is  difficult  to  spread  manure  on  any  other  crop  and, 
likewise,  the  time  when  a  very  small  amount  of  manure  is  usually 
produced. 


262 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


It  is  just  as  necessary  to  apply  lime  to  pasture  land  in  order 
to  secure  the  maximum  production  of  grass  as  it  is  to  apply  lime 
to  meadowland.  Pasture  lands  are  generally  more  acid  than 
any  other  section  of  the  farm,  and  more  in  need  of  lime.  Legu- 
minous plants  in  the  pasture  are  just  as  valuable  as  in  the  mead- 
ows, and  lime  encourages  their  growth.  If  lime  is  applied  as  a 
top  dressing  in  the  pasture,  its  good  results  will  be  extended  over 
a  long  period  of  years. 


Fig.  84.  —  Typical  pasture  in  Delaware  County,  New  York.     Rocky  and 
steep,  but  the  cool,  moist  climate  and  strong  soil  produce  good  pasture 


Many  experiments  have  shown  that  an  effective  and  economical 
way  to  rid  a  pasture  of  paintbrush,  or  orange  hawkweed,  and 
many  other  injurious  weeds  is  to  lime  and  manure  the  soil.  Many 
species  of  weeds  are  best  adapted  to  growth  on  a  soil  in  poor 
condition  and  this  treatment  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  grass 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  runs  them  out. 

5.  —  Alternate  Pastures 

European  dairymen  manage  their  pastures  much  better  than 
do  American  dairymen.    For  this  reason,  and  as  a  result  of  cli- 


CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    263 

matic  and  soil  conditions  that  are  ideal  for  pasture  growth,  many 
of  the  European  pastures  are  much  more  productive  than  are 
the  American  pastures. 

On  the  island  of  Jersey  and  in  many  sections  of  England,  cows 
are  never  allowed  to  roam  at  will  over  pasture,  but  are  tethered 
in  one  place  for  a  day  at  a  time.  This  is  conducive  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  very  best  pasture  that  the  soil  will  afford,  as  all  of  the 
field  is  growing  without  discouragement  except  the  small  portion 
that  the  cow  is  eating  over.  Another  common  practice  is  to 
fence  the  pasture  in  separate  sections  and  to  allow  each  section 
to  recuperate  fully  before  the  cows  are  again  turned  in.  In  this 
way,  the  pasture  is  kept  in  a  better  condition  and  the  dairy  herd 
gets  the  maximum  amount  of  feed.  These  methods  of  pasture 
management  are  adapted  to  regions  where  labor  is  relatively 
cheap. 

Alternation  of  pastures  is  a  method  that  the  American  dairy- 
man can  well  ajfford  to  consider,  even  though  with  the  American 
standards  of  living  all  labor  here  is  relatively  high  priced.  The 
extra  expense  involved  is  generally  only  the  cost  of  one  or  two 
cross  fences.  Many  American  dairymen  are  already  obtainmg 
excellent  results  by  having  a  night  pasture  and  a  day  pasture 
for  alternate  use.  It  is  very  probable  that  it  would  be  profitable 
for  these  men  to  do  a  little  more  fencing  and  make  it  possible 
to  have  several  pastures  which  they  could  use  alternately. 

6.  —  Consider  Pasturing  in  Rotation  and  in 
Temporary  Pastures 

Wherever  there  is  permanent  pasture,  it  is  more  profitable  to 
raise  crops  on  land  capable  of  producing  crops  economically  and 
to  keep  the  rougher  land,  or  the  land  that  can  not  be  cropped 
economically,  in  permanent  pasture.  If  there  is  no  permanent 
pasture  on  a  farm,  it  is  doubtful  if  dairying  should  be  undertaken 
on  that  farm,  unless  there  are  some  specialized  adaptations  for 
making  it  profitable.  If  a  field  is  pastured  in  rotation  under  special 
conditions  that  warrant  this  practice,  it  is  generally  pastured 


264  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

the  last  year  that  it  is  in  sod  before  being  plowed  up  and  planted 
to  a  crop  that  requires  cultivation. 

There  is  hardly  a  forage  crop  that  is  not  in  use  in  some  section 
or  under  some  system  for  temporary  pasturing.  In  many  parts 
of  the  Middle  West,  cornstalks  are  pastured  after  the  corn  is 
gathered  m.  the  fall.  In  many  grain  regions,  stubble  land  is 
pastured  after  the  grain  is  cut  in  the  summer.  In  some  regions, 
winter  rye  and  winter  wheat  are  pastured  in  the  fall  if  they  make 
a  good  growth.  Many  dairymen  make  a  practice  of  pasturing 
off  the  second  growth  or  the  after  harvest  feed  of  a  clover  field 
in  the  fall.  The  advisability  of  pasturing  any  of  these  crops  will 
depend  upon  the  farm  conditions.  They  are  all  more  commonly 
used  for  pasturing  sheep  or  beef  stock,  than  for  the  pasturage 
of  dairy  cattle. 

7.  —  Reseed  with  Permanent  Pasture  Mixtures 
When  Necessary 

It  is  often  possible  and  desirable  to  reseed  a  permanent  pas- 
ture. Much  pasture  land  that  is  not  economical  to  crop  contin- 
uously may  be  plowed  up  when  the  pasture  gets  too  poor,  cropped 
for  a  year  or  two  to  rot  out  the  old  sod  and  kill  the  weeds,  and 
then  reseeded  with  a  permanent  pasture  mixture. 

Some  pasture  land  that  it  would  not  be  economical  to  till  or 
that  can  not  be  plowed,  can  be  scratched  over  with  a  harrow 
early  in  the  spring  and  grass  seed  can  be  applied  to  good  advan- 
tage. In  such  cases,  however,  the  land  should  be  protected  from 
grazing  the  first  year. 

In  seeding  land  for  permanent  pasture,  we  should  plan  not  only 
upon  the  grasses  that  will  give  a  temporary  feed  during  the  first 
year  or  two,  but  also  upon  grasses  that  will  develop  and  give  a 
permanent  feed  over  a  period  of  a  good  many  years.  For  soils 
that  will  grow  timothy  and  blue  grass,  that  is,  for  moderately 
fertile  soils,  the  following  mixture,  with  the  amounts  per  acre, 
is  suggested: 

Timothy 10  pounds 

Red  clover 6  pounds 


CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    265 

Alsike  clover 3  pounds 

Orchard  grass 3  pounds 

Kentucky  blue  grass 4  pounds 

White  clover 1  pound 

For  poorer  soils  that  are  too  wet  or  that  are  on  dry  hills  where 
blue  grass  and  timothy  do  not  grow  so  well,  the  following  mixture 
is  recommended: 

Timothy 6  pounds 

Redtop ' 6  pounds 

Alsike  clover 5  pounds 

Orchard  grass 5  pounds 

Canadian  blue  grass 5  pounds 

White  clover 1  pound 

Timothy  is  adapted  to  most  soil  conditions.  It  is  nearly  always 
a  sure  crop  and  easy  to  seed.  The  seed  is  cheap.  Timothy  fur- 
nishes for  one  or  two  years  an  excellent  pasture.  It  grows  quickly, 
recovers  quickly  after  feeding  off,  and  is  very  palatable. 

Redtop  is  not  quite  so  palatable  or  quito  so  productive  as 
timothy,  but  it  will  grow  on  the  more  acid  soils  where  timothy 
does  not  do  well.  It  should  be  substituted  for  timothy  only  on 
such  soils. 

Red  clover  produces  good  pasture  for  one  year  and  improves 
the  soil.  In  many  regions,  only  a  very  small  portion  of  it  persists 
through  the  first  winter,  and  it  almost  disappears  from  the 
pasture  after  two  years. 

Alsike  clover  will  grow  on  wetter  soils  or  poorer  soils  than  will 
red  clover.  It  will  not  produce  quite  as  much  feed  as  red  clover, 
but  will  persist  a  greater  number  of  years.  It  is  a  leguminous 
crop,  especially  valuable  for  its  protein  content  and  for  its  soil 
improvement  properties. 

Orchard  grass  is  a  quick,  rank  growing  grass  that  will  do  better 
in  shaded  conditions  than  will  any  other  grass.  It  will  produce 
feed  earlier  in  the  spring  than  any  other  grass.  It  recovers  very 
quickly  after  being  fed  off.  The  principal  drawbacks  to  its  use 
are  that  it  becomes  woody  very  quickly,  and  it  grows  as  a  bunch 
grass  rather  than  in  an  even  sod. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  pasture 


266  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

grass  in  America.  It  is  adapted  to  all  the  northern  half  of  the 
United  States  and  much  of  Canada.  It  is  very  palatable,  contains 
a  great  deal  of  nourishment,  recovers  quickly  after  pasturing, 
and  persists  over  a  long  period  of  years.  Kentucky  blue  grass 
is  one  of  the  natural  grasses  of  the  dairy  sections  and  grows 
naturally  over  an  area  many  times  greater  in  extent  than  the 
area  that  has  ever  been  seeded  with  it.  It  is  well  adapted  to  dry, 
fertile  soils,  but  will  not  stand  as  much  acidity  as  will  timothy. 

Canada  blue  grass  is  less  productive  than  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
and  somewhat  less  palatable.  It  is  an  excellent  pasture  grass, 
however,  and  will  grow  on  poor,  acid,  dry  soils,  where  Kentucky 
blue  grass  fails.  Canada  blue  grass  is  as  widely  distributed  over 
our  country  as  is  Kentucky  blue  grass. 

White  clover,  wherever  it  will  do  well,  is  probably  the  sweetest, 
most  palatable,  most  nutritious  pasture  grass  that  grows.  It 
requires,  however,  a  more  fertile  soil  than  many  of  the  other 
pasture  grasses.  White  clover  recovers  very  quickly  after  being 
pastured  off  and  is  very  much  relished  by  the  cattle.  It  has  the 
ability  to  reseed  itself  constantly.  Dairymen  often  observe  that 
cows  apparently  obtain  much  more  feed  from  a  small  portion  of 
the  pasture  that  grows  good  white  clover  than  from  much  larger 
areas  that  are  covered  with  other  plants.  W^hite  clover  seed  is 
always  very  expensive  to  purchase,  but  is  present  in  nearly  all 
pasture  soils.  If  the  soil  is  made  fertile  enough  and  the  acidity 
is  neutralized,  white  clover  will  come  in. 

8.  —  Keep  the  Pasture  Fences  Tight 

The  first  work  that  you  should  do  on  the  pasture  each  spring 
is  to  repair  your  fences,  and  put  them  into  the  best  condition. 
A  small  amount  of  work  each  spring  repairing  posts  that  have 
rotted  off,  putting  in  new  staples  that  have  pulled  out,  tighten- 
ing wires,  and  strengthening  corner  posts  that  need  it,  will  keep 
the  fences  in  good  condition  at  a  very  small  expense. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  pasture  fence  in  use.  The  old-fashioned 
stone  wall  is  rarely  constructed  under  modern  conditions,  because 


CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    267 

of  the  high  labor  cost,  even  in  the  regions  where  stone  is  plentiful. 
Board  fences  are  rarely  constructed  under  the  present  conditions, 
because  of  the  high  cost  of  lumber.  Hedge  fences  are  very  unsatis- 
factory, because  of  the  large  amount  of  labor  required  to  keep 
the  growth  from  spreading  and  infesting  all  the  land. 

Probably  the  most  satisfactory  modern  fence  is  made  of  woven 
wire,  many  kinds  of  which  are  on  the  market.  The  materials  for 
this  fence  are  rather  expensive.  The  barbed-wire  fence,  which  has 
been  in  use  for  many  years  now,  is  satisfactory  for  cattle.  A  still 
more  satisfactory  fence  is  a  low  woven-wire  fence  with  one  line 
of  barbed  wire  placed  above  it  as  this  prevents  cows  from  reaching 
over  the  fence  and  causing  the  woven  wire  to  sag.  A  barbed- wire 
fence  is  very  cheap  but  is  in  disfavor  with  some  dairymen  be- 
cause horses,  and  sometimes  cows,  have  been  seriously  injured 
by  it.  The  four-strand  barbed- wire  fence  is  generally  more  satis- 
factory than  a  fence  with  only  three  strands. 

Wherever  lumber  is  abundant,  the  most  economical  fence  posts 
are  made  from  chestnut,  locust,  catalpa,  or  cedar  timber.  Many 
other  kinds  of  timber  also  are  used  for  posts.  With  the  present 
cost,  it  is  probably  advisable  to  treat  all  posts  with  creosote  before 
using  them,  as  this  will  greatly  lengthen  their  usefulness.  Very 
satisfactory  steel  fence  posts  are  now  on  the  market.  They  are 
more  costly  than  the  wooden  posts,  they  make  it  more  difficult 
to  keep  the  wires  taut,  and  many  of  them  are  so  small  in  diameter 
that  it  is  a  problem  to  make  them  soUd  and  stable  in  the  soil. 
Concrete  fence  posts  are  used  in  some  sections,  but  are  expensive 
to  make,  expensive  to  install,  and  render  difficult  the  attachment 
of  the  wire  fence  materials  so  as  to  prevent  sagging. 

Poor  fences  are  Hkely  to  result  in  many  troubles.  Cows  that 
get  through  an  owner's  fence  on  to  a  neighbor's  land  may  incur 
for  the  owner  a  large  bill  for  damage  or  trespass.  Fences  that  are 
loose,  poorly  constructed,  or  easy  for  a  cow  to  push  through,  are 
likely  to  result  in  the  development  of  breachy  cattle.  A  cow  that 
has  become  accustomed  to  getting  out  has  a  habit  next  to  im- 
possible to  break.  A  cow  that  once  gets  this  habit  is  a  constant 
trouble  maker,  and  it  is  generally  advisable  to  sell  her.    It  is  still 


268  DAIRY  FARMING   PROJECTS 

more  advisable  to  keep  your  fences  in  such  a  condition  that  the 
cows  will  not  acquire  the  habit. 

For  the  dairyman  with  pure  bred  cattle,  a  still  greater  danger 
may  result  from  poor  fences,  in  that  scrub  bulls  belonging  to  neigh- 
bors may  obtain  access  to  his  pure  bred  cattle  and  breed  some  of 
his  valuable  cows.  This  will  result  in  a  great  loss  of  value  in  the 
offspring. 

9.  —  Count  the  Cost  before  Using  Soiling  Crops  in 
Place  of  or  to  Supplement  Pastures 

Very  rarely  is  it  advisable  or  profitable  to  use  soiling  crops 
for  summer  feeding  in  place  of  pasture.  The  labor  required  to 
grow  such  crops,  the  labor  required  to  haul  this  heavy  green 
feed  to  the  barn  every  day,  the  extra  labor  involved  in  feeding 
the  cows  in  the  stable  and  in  handling  manure  during  the  summer 
months  make  it  impossible  for  the  man  who  produces  milk  by 
this  method  to  compete  with  the  man  who  feeds  his  cows  upon 
pasture.  The  use  of  soiling  crops  in  place  of  pasture  is  practicable 
only  where  there  is  very  high  priced  land,  where  there  is  cheap 
labor,  and  where  the  milk  or  other  products  sold  bring  an  excep- 
tionally high  price.  If  the  cows  are  not  to  be  pastured,  but  are 
to  be  fed  some  succulent  food  through  the  summer,  silage  is  the 
most  economical  feed  to  use. 

A  small  amount  of  soihng  crops  may  very  profitably  be  grown 
and  fed  as  a  supplement  to  pasture  during  the  season  when  the 
pasture  is  shortest,  that  is,  the  latter  part  of  July  and  the  month 
of  August.  Some  good  crops  for  this  purpose  are  oats  and  peas, 
corn,  millet,  cowpeas,  or  other  palatable  food.  Such  crops  are 
nutritious  for  cows  and  make  a  quick  vegetative  growth.  It  is 
often  more  economical  to  use  silage  even  for  this  short  season. 

For  the  dairyman  who  is  sure  that  it  is  economical  for  him  to 
keep  his  cows  on  a  soiUng  system,  there  are  many  such  systems 
worked  out  with  dates  of  planting  and  areas  computed  in  such 
a  way  that  a  full  amount  of  green  food  may  be  produced  for  any 
given  number  of  cows  throughout  the  summer. 


CARING  FOR  PASTURES  AND  SUMMER  FEEDING    269 

1.  How  many  acres  of  pasture  do  you  use?     What  is  the  value? 

How  many  milch  cows  will  it  feed?  How  many  dollars' 
worth  of  your  land  is  required  to  pasture  a  cow? 

2.  How  many  rods  of  fencing  have  you  around  your  pasture? 

At  the  present  cost  what  would  the  materials  for  this  fence 
cost?  How  many  corner  posts  are  there?  Could  the  fence 
be  improved  economically? 

3.  Find  as  many  different  kinds  of  grasses  as  you  can  in  your 

pasture.     Which  kinds  are  plentiful? 

4.  Find  as  many  varieties  of  weeds  as  you  can  in  your  pasture. 

Which  kinds  are  most  harmful? 

5.  How  early  do  you  generally  turn  cows  on  your  pasture  in  the 

spring?     How  late  do  they  remain  out  in  the  fall? 

6.  Has  your  pasture  ever  been  mowed?     Has  it  ever  been  plowed? 

Has  a  pasture  mixture  ever  been  sowed  upon  it? 

7.  As  a  subproject,  select  about  a  half-acre  section  of  your  pasture 

where  the  grass  is  poor.  Manure  this  Ughtly,  or  at  the  rate 
of  about  10  loads  per  acre.  Sow  Ume  in  an  amount  according 
to  the  acidity  of  the  land.  Sow  a  small  amount  of  the 
pasture  mixture  best  adapted  to  your  conditions.  Compare 
this  area  with  the  remainder  of  your  pasture  at  the  end  of 
one  year;  two  years. 

8.  Describe  botanically  and  give  the  scientific  name  for  each  of  the  fol- 

lowing grasses:  red  clover,  alsike,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  white 
clover,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  Canada  blue  grass,  red  top.     Li: — 

9.  Where  and  under  what  circumstances  are  crops  pastured  off?    What 

crops  are  used  for  this  purpose?    W-FM  :  188. 

10.  What  is  the  commonest  pasture  plant  in  the  South?    EW  :  224. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

PLANNING  THE  FARMSTEAD  AND  FIELD 
LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM 

1.  Locating  and  arranging  the  farmstead 

2.  Adapt  the  buildings  to  the  farm 

3.  Arrange  the  fields  to  economize  labor 

4.  Use  few  and  well  constructed  fences 


Fig.  85.  —  A  house  which  adds  to  the  value  of  the  farm.     Attractive,  roomy i 
in  good  condition,  yet  not  so  large  as  to  be  so  expensive  in  upkeep. 

270 


PLANNING  LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM  271 

The  general  arrangement  and  layout  of  the  dairy  farm  is  a 
factor  that  materially  influences  the  possible  profits.  Most  of  our 
farms  already  have  buildings  on  them  and  are  divided  into  fields. 
In  some  cases,  conditions  are  such  that  it  is  impossible  to  change 
the  arrangement.  In  many  other  cases,  however,  it  is  possible, 
through  purchase  of  more  land,  by  sale  of  land,  or  because  of  the 
burning  of  buildings  or  the  necessity  of  remodeling  them,  to  make 
a  considerable  change  in  the  general  layout. 


Fig.  86.  —  A  considerable  part  of  the  value  of  a  farm  is  its  "home  value." 
A  pleasant  farm  home  in  Vermont. 


1.  —  Locating  ana  Arranging  the  Farmstead 

The  house,  bams,  gardens,  and  yards,  that  are  generally 
grouped  together  and  spoken  of  as  the  farmstead,  should  be  so 
centrally  located  on  the  farm  as  to  make  all  fields  easily  acces- 
sible. If  the  farmstead  is  located  on  one  comer  or  at  one  end 
of  the  farm,  the  back  fields  of  that  farm  will  be  much  further 


272  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

away  and  much  more  expensive  to  work  than  would  be  many 
of  the  fields  on  the  neighbor's  farm  that  is  just  across  the  road. 
In  plowing  and  cultivating,  trips  must  be  made  twice  daily  for 
many  days  in  the  year  from  the  bam  to  far  distant  fields.  Time 
spent  in  traveling  back  and  forth  between  the  fields  and  the 
bam  is  unproductive  and  a  loss  to  the  farm  business. 

The  farm  buildings  should  be  located  near  enough  together, 
both  for  convenience  and  for  conservation  of  land  in  the  farm- 
stead. But  they  should  be  located  far  enough  apart  so  that  in 
case  one  bums  the  rest  may  be  saved.  The  house,  moreover, 
should  be  located  at  such  a  distance  and  in  such  a  direction  with 
respect  to  the  prevailing  winds,  that  the  smells  of  the  bam  will 
not  be  objectionable. 

The  bamyard  should  be  screened  from  view  from  the  house 
by  the  bams  themselves  or  by  a  high  board  fence.  It  should 
ordinarily  be  located  in  such  a  way  that  the  bams  themselves 
protect  it  from  the  prevailing  winds.  On  all  practical  farms  there 
is  space  where  machinery,  manure  spreaders,  or  other  imple- 
ments often  stand  overnight  outside  of  the  bam.  This  space 
should  be  far  enough  from  the  house  so  as  not  to  make  an  un- 
sightly view.  It  is  most  handy  to  have  the  horse  bam  or  the 
garage  located  nearer  the  house  than  are  the  other  buildings,  as 
these  two  buildings  are  used  more  in  connection  with  the  home. 
So  far  as  possible  the  horses  should  be  stabled  near  to  the  wagons 
and  other  horse-dra^vn  tools  to  save  time  in  preparing  for  field 
work. 

If  the  dairy  farm  is  plamied  to  sell  live  stock,  the  animals 
should  be  so  arranged  in  the  barn  as  to  give  a  good  impression 
as  to  quality  and  condition  when  the  visitor  first  enters.  The 
first  impression  is  as  important  in  this  as  in  any  other  business. 
A  string  of  cow^s,  large,  of  fine  individuality,  and  in  excellent  con- 
dition, placed  near  the  door  of  the  bam  will  go  a  long  way  toward 
impressing  the  visitor  favorably  as  to  the  quality  and  value  of 
all  the  stock  on  the  farm. 

The  farm  garden  should  be  large  and  located  close  to  the  house, 
so  that  its  products  for  the  table  may  be  easily  and  quickly 


PLANNING  LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM 


273 


gathered.  It  should  always  be  arranged  in  long  rows,  planted 
such  a  distance  apart  that  the  work  of  cultivating  may  be  done 
very  largely  by  horse-drawn  cultivators.  It  should  produce  a 
quantity  of  small  and  large  fruits  sufficient  for  the  family  needs. 
In  planning  the  farm  garden,  we  should  always  allow  plenty  of 
space  in  order  to  minimize  labor,  as  land  is  abundant  and  labor 
is  very  expensive. 


1  iG.  87.  —  A  commodious  and  comfortable  farm  home,  yet  not  so  large  as  to 
be  expensive  in  upkeep  or  wasteful  of  household  labor. 


1.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  locating 

a  farmstead  in  the  center  of  the  farm,  but  some  distance 
from  a  pubUc  highway?     Bo  :  64.     W-FM  :  374. 

2.  What  points  should  be  considered  in  locating  a  farmhouse? 

Bo  :  70. 

3.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  having  a  barn  located  across 

the  road  from  the  house?     W-FM  :  389. 


4.  Hoiv  large  should  the  farmstead  be?    Bo  :  67. 


274  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

2.  —  Adapt  the  Buildings  to  the  Farm 

Large  and  expensive  buildings  should  not  be  constructed  on 
a  cheap,  poor  farm.  Many  farms  are  overcapitalized  in  build- 
ings. We  must  remember  that  buildings  are  expensive  to  keep 
painted,  roofed,  and  in  good  general  condition.  There  are  many 
instances,  especially  among  farms  that  have  been  o^^•ned  by  city 
men  or  by  men  who  have  earned  their  living  in  some  business 


Fig.  88.  —  Well  built  farm  buildings  which  add  to  the  value  of  the  farm 


other  than  farming,  where  the  buildings  are  so  expensive  that 
it  is  impossible  for  the  farm  to  justify  such  an  investment. 

The  farmhouse  should  be  large  enough  to  house  the  farmer's 
family  and  whatever  hired  help  he  may  intend  to  board.  With 
the  increasing  prices  of  all  construction  material  and  the  increas- 
ing cost  of  heating  buildings,  there  is  much  economy  in  the  small, 
well-planned,  and  compactly  arranged  house.  Such  a  house  re- 
quires less  for  upkeep,  less  for  heating,  less  for  plumbing,  and  less 
for  lighting  than  the  old-fashioned  rambling  type  of  farm  house 
which  was  so  common  when  lumber  was  cheap,  when  plumbing 
was  unknown,  and  when  each  room  was  heated  separately  by 
a  stove. 


PLANNING   LAYOUT  OF  A   DAIRY  FARM  275 

Modem  conveniences  of  heating,  lighting,  water  supply,  and 
sewage  disposal  are  more  expensive  in  the  country  than  in  the 
city.  Nevertheless,  the  farm  is  before  all  else  a  home,  and  these 
convenience- should  be  installed  as  soon  as  possible. 

If  a  hired  man  is  to  be  kept  throughout  the  year,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  have  a  tenant  house  for  him.  This  house  should 
be  located  near  enough  to  the  farmstead  for  the  hired  man  quickly 
to  get  from  his  work  to  his  meals  and  back  to  work  again.  It 
should  also  be  located  far  enough  from  the  owner's  house  for 
each  family  to  enjoy  a  fair  degree  of  privacy  and  for  the  hired 
man  to  have  a  garden  and  a  flock  of  hens  of  his  own. 

Profitable  farm  bams  need  not  be  fancy  or  expensive.  For  the 
storage  of  hay  and  roughage,  httle  more  is  needed  than  a  good 
roof  and  good  siding.  Warmth  or  tightness  of  siding  is  neither 
needed  nor  desirable.  The  good  dairy  stable  must  possess  good 
ventilation,  good  light;  and  sufficient  warmth.  It  should  also  be 
possible  to  keep  it  in  a  good  sanitary  condition.  Expensive  con- 
struction is  not  necessary  to  accomplish  these  ends.  Good  sani- 
tary milk  and  healthy  live  stock  are  being  produced  in  hundreds 
of  cases  under  extremely  cheap  and  economical  conditions.  From 
the  construction  standpoint  the  most  important  features  of  the 
dairy  bam  are  a  good  roof  and  a  solid  foundation. 

1.  What  per  cent  on  investment  should  be  used  in  figuring  the 

annual  cost  of  farm  buildings?     Bo  :  27. 

2.  "What  is  the  maximum  investment  that  should  be  made  in 

buildings  per  1000  pounds  of  animal?  per  hen? 
W-FM  :  396. 

3.  What  sort  of  a  house  should  hchuilt  in  the  country?    W-FM  :  399. 

4.  What  advice  did  Cato  give  on  the  subject  of  building?    W-FM  :  395. 

3.  —  Arrange  the  Fields  to  Economize  Labor 

The  farm  should  be  divided  into  large  fields,  rectangular  in 
shape  but  somewhat  longer  than  they  are  wide.    Such  fields  may 


276  DAIRY  FARIMING  PROJECTS 

be  cultivated  much  more  economically  than  fields  of  irregular 
shape,  since  the  latter  necessitate  much  extra  turning  in  plow- 
ing, many  short  rows  for  cultivating,  and  more  work  in  other 
ways.  With  every  increase  in  the  size  of  machinery  and  every 
development  of  new  power-driven  machinery,  the  small  field  is 
placed  at  the  greater  disadvantage  and  becomes  relatively  less 
profitable.  In  generations  past  when  the  farm  work  was  done 
by  hand  tools,  little  more  labor  was  required  to  work  a  given 
area  in  a  crooked  field  or  in  a  small  field,  than  was  required  in 
a  large,  well-shaped  field.  For  this  reason  our  early  farmers  divided 
their  land  into  many  small  fields,  often  surrounding  each  by 
stone  walls  or  a  hedge.  The  modern  farmer,  in  order  to  work 
these  fields  economically,  must  remove  these  barriers.  This  is  a 
laborious  and  expensive  process,  but  pays  well  in  the  saving  of 
labor  yearly  for  all  time  to  come. 

In  discussing  the  farmstead,  we  have  considered  distances 
between  the  fields  and  the  farm  buildings.  Excessive  distance 
ordinarily  can  not  be  remedied,  except  by  disposing  of  far- 
away fields  or  by  placing  them  in  a  rotation  that  requires  as 
little  cultivation  as  possible.  Occasionally  near-by  fields  from  a 
neighbor's  farm  may  be  purchased.  Fields  that  are  too  far  distant 
from  the  farmstead  to  be  worked  in  cultivated  crops  economically 
may  be  kept  in  hay  and  only  plowed  when  necessary  to  reseed 
them.  Fields  that  are  far  distant  may  often  be  pastured  profit- 
ably. Cows,  however,  go  back  and  forth  to  pasture  twice  daily 
for  about  two  hundred  daj^s  in  the  year.  Pasture  so  located  that 
cows  must  be  driven  by  man  labor  a  considerable  distance  each 
night  and  morning  necessitates  a  large  labor  charge  against  the 
dairy  herd  for  this  one  item.  A  lane  leading  from  the  pasture  to 
the  farm  buildings  will  allow  the  cows  to  come  to  the  barn  of 
their  own  accord  at  milking  time  and  save  much  labor.  A  lane 
should  always  be  built  of  good  width.  A  narrow  lane  will  be 
trampled  to  such  an  extent  that  no  pasture  is  produced  in  it  and 
cows  may  be  injured  by  crowding  against  the  fences.  A  wide 
lane  provides  some  pasture  and  furnishes  a  roadway  at  the 
same  time. 


PLANNING  LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM  277 


278 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Fig.  90.  —  Large  level  areas  make  it  possible  to  obtain  fields  of  an  ideal  shape. 


1.  What  is  the  difference  in  time  required  to  plow  one  acre  in  a 

field  18  rods  across  and  one  acre  in  a  field  58  rods  across? 
W-FM  :  365. 

2.  How  does  the  time  required  to  plow  an  acre  in  a  triangular 

field  compare  with  the  time  required  to  plow  one  acre  in  a 
rectangular  field?     W-FM  :  366. 

3.  What  is  the  difference  in  value  between  a  field  located  40  rods 

from  a  barn  and  one  located  at  the  barn?  Explain.  How 
many  fields  have  you  which  are  located  more  than  40  rods 
from  the  bam?     W-FM  :  369. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  factors  that  determine  how  a  farm  may 

be  divided  into  fields?     Bo  :  83. 


5.  What  are  the  four  methods  of  field  layout  given  by  Warren? 
W-FM  :  371. 


PLANNING  LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM  279 


Fig.  91.  —  Level  fields  permit  the  use  of  labor-saving  machinery. 


4.  —  Use  Few  and  Well-constructed  Fences 

The  pasture  should  be  well  fenced,  and  strong  posts  placed  not 
more  than  one  rod  apart  and  anchored  well  at  all  corners  or  turns 
should  be  used.  Woven  wire  with  one  strand  of  barbed  wire  above 
it  makes  an  excellent  fence  for  most  purposes.  Four  strands  of 
barbed  wire  drawn  tight  and  well  placed  makes  the  cheapest 
fence  and  one  of  the  most  efficient.  If  the  wires  are  kept  taut 
and  in  good  condition  dairy  animals  are  seldom  injured  by  them. 
There  is,  however,  some  danger  in  pasturing  horses  near  a  barbed- 
wire  fence. 

Farm  fields  should  not  be  fenced,  unless  it  is  certain  that  they 
are  to  be  pastured  during  some  part  of  the  rotation.  It  is  very 
doubtful  whether  we  can  afford  to  keep  up  a  fence  around  a  culti- 
vated field  for  the  sake  of  the  small  amount  of  pasturage  which 
may  be  obtained  by  feeding  off  after  crops.  There  is  also  the 
disadvantage  that  such  fences  always  make  a  harboring  place 
for  weeds  and  bushes  and  necessitate  the  labor  of  mowing  them 
each  year. 

1.  Measure  the  distance  that  you  travel  in  one  day  in  doing  chores 
for  your  project  herd.     Could  you  rearrange  the  buildings 


280  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

economically  so  as  to  save  any  considerable  proportion  of 
this  travel?    Explain  by  diagram. 

2.  Make  a  map  of  your  farmstead,  or  of  a  near-by  farmstead. 

Suggest,  if  possible,  a  rearrangement  that  would  be  more 
convenient.     Would  it  pay  to  make  this  rearrangement? 

3.  Make  a  plan  of  what  you  consider  to  be  an  ideal  layout  for  the 

farmstead  on  a  dairy  farm. 


Fig.  92.  —  This  combination  of  pasture  and  crop  land  is  put  to  its  most 
efficient  use  by  a  dairy  farm  business. 


4.  How  much  is  your  barn  worth?     What  is  the  investment  per 

cow  for  the  amount  of  room  used  by  each  cow?  How  much 
use  of  buildings  should  be  charged  against  each  cow  each 
year? 

5.  Draw  a  map  of  your  farm,  showing  the  size,  shape,  and  location 

of  each  field.     How  could  this  be  rearranged  to  secure 


PLANNING  LAYOUT  OF  A  DAIRY  FARM  281 

greater  economy  of  labor?     How  much  would  it  cost?     Could 
you  afford  to  make  the  change? 

6.  Calculate  the  number  of  rods  of  fencing  on  your  home  farm. 

7.  Find  the  cost  of  fence  posts  and  of  three  different  kinds  of  fence. 

From  these  calculate  the  present  cost  of  new  materials  that 
would  be  required  to  replace  these  fences. 

8.  How  will  the  rotation  used  affect  the  number  of  fields  in  the 

farm? 

9.  Measure  the  distance  that  you  walk  each  day  in  the  winter  to 

feed  the  cows  hay.     Could  you  change  the  location  of  the 
hay  chutes  so  as  to  decrease  this  distance? 

10.  Measure  the  distance  that  you  walk  each  day  to  feed  the  cows 
silage.  If  you  were  erecting  a  new  silo,  could  you  place  it 
in  a  new  position  that  would  economize  this  travel? 


CHAPTER  XXV 
CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM 

1.  Get  acquainted  with  the  region  before  purchasing 

2.  Selecting  a  region  adapted  to  dairying 

(1)  Select  a  region  where  there  is  dairying 

(2)  Select  a  grass-growing  region 

(3)  Select  a  region  of  rolling  and  hilly  topography 

(4)  Select  a  region  adapted  to  the  product  you  wish  to  sell 

3.  Selecting  the  dairy  farm 

(1)  Select  a  farm  of  profitable  size 

(2)  Select  a  productive  farm 

(3)  Select  a  farm  with  a  good  field  layout 

(4)  Select  a  farm  with  good  buildings 

(5)  Select  for  good  water  supply 

(6)  Select  a  healthful  location 

(7)  Select  for  good  marketing  possibilities 

(8)  Select  for  good  neighbors  and  social  conditions 

(9)  Select  for  probable  development 

4.  Heed  the  advice  of  Cato 

When  you  have  decided  to  start  in  the  dairy  business,  you 
must  first  choose  the  region  in  which  to  farm,  and  then  choose 
the  particular  farm  upon  which  to  start  the  business.  Few  other 
decisions  that  you  will  make  will  have  so  important  a  bearing 
upon  your  future  prosperity  as  will  these  two: 

Many  farmers  feel  that  the  problem  of  the  choice  of  the  region 
is  already  settled  for  them,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  have 
been  born  and  brought  up  in  a  certain  region.  Many  farmers 
feel  that  they  are  tied  to  particular  farms  because  they  are  already 

282 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM 


283 


owned  by  their  families  and  will  probably  be  inherited.  Even  in 
any  such  case,  however,  the  prospective  dairyman  should  consider 
the  fitness  of  the  region  and  of  the  farm  very  carefully  before 
deciding  upon  his  permanent  location.  It  is  far  better  to  sever 
all  home  ties  and  community  relationships  and  to  move  to  a 
region  or  a  farm  with  greater  possibilities  early  in  your  business 


Fig.  93. 


River-bottom  land  is  always  valuable.    It  is  easy  to  find  men  who 
are  willing  to  lend  money  on  this  kind  of  land. 


life,  than  to  tie  yourself  to  a  region  or  a  farm  where  it  is  practi- 
cally impossible  to  make  a  success. 


1.  —  Get  Acquainted  with  the  Region  before  Purchasing 

If  you  expect  to  start  business  upon  a  farm  that  you  have 
never  operated,  or  in  a  region  where  you  have  never  lived,  it 
will  be  well  first  to  rent  the  farm  for  a  year,  or  even  to  work 


284  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

on  it  by  the  month  for  a  year,  before  buying.  This  is  especially 
advisable  in  case  you  are  going  into  a  region  with  which  you  are 
unfamiUar.  There  come  to  our  attention  every  year  many  in- 
stances of  men  who  engage  in  farming  and  lose  several  hundred 
dollars  during  the  first  year  or  two;  because  they  are  unacquainted 
with  the  region  where  they  are  working,  and  with  its  soil,  climate, 
and  marketing  adaptations.  In  nearly  every  case  the  farmer 
would  have  been  better  off  financially,  if  he  had  worked  but  a 
single  j^ear  there  as  a  hired  man  or  had  rented  a  farm  there  for 
a  year  before  making  the  purchase. 

2.  —  Selecting  a  Region  Adapted  to  Dairying 

(1)  Select  a  region  where  there  is  dairying.  —  If,  on  one  hand, 
no  farmer  has  a  dairy  in  a  given  region,  it  is  an  indication  that 
all  of  the  farmers  there  have  decided  that  dairying  is  not  a  profit- 
able business  for  that  locality.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  farmers  in  a  given  region  are  already  engaged  in  dairying, 
it  is  an  indication  that  there  is  a  possibility  of  making  at  least  a 
living  there  fix)m  the  dairy  business.  There  are  many  advantages 
also  in  having  neighbors  who  are  engaged  in  the  same  business 
in  which  you  are  to  be  engaged,  such  as  the  development  of  co- 
operative buying  and  selling,  cooperative  insurance,  and  the  like. 
Not  least  important  in  a  region  of  many  dairy  farms  is  the  proba- 
bility that  the  hired  men  whom  you  may  need  to  employ  will  be 
accustomed  to  and  skilled  in  the  work  which  thej^  must  do  on 
your  farm. 

(2)  Select  a  grass-growing  region.  —  A  study  of  the  great 
dairy  regions  of  the  world,  or  of  any  particular  country,  will  indi- 
cate that  the  dairy  business  flourishes  best  in  regions  well  adapted 
to  growing  meadow  and  pasture  grasses.  The  prosperity  of  the 
dairy  business  depends  very  largely  upon  the  abiUty  of  the  region, 
or  of  a  particular  farm,  to  produce  these  crops.  A  great  grass- 
growing  region  makes  possible  a  great  dairy  region  and  good  pas- 
ture land  insures  a  good  dairy  business.  The  meadow  and  pasture 
lands  of  the  world  are  ordinarily  found  in  the  regions  that  have  a 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM  285 

cool  climate  and  plenty  of  rainfall.  Warren  points  out  that  most 
of  the  milk  for  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Chicago  comes  from 
north  of  these  cities,  rather  than  from  south  of  them. 

An  abundant  supply  of  pure,  fresh,  cool  water  is  necessary  for 
the  dairy  herd.      Dairy  farmers  have  always    recognized    this 


Fig.  94.  —  A  good  hay  crop  is  one  of  the  best  evidences  of  soil  fertiUty. 


and  have  summed  up  this  important  qualification  of  the  dairy 
farm  in  their  oft- repeated  expression,  "It  is  well  watered." 

(3)  Select  a  region  of  rolling  and  hilly  topography.  —  Wher- 
ever land  is  level  and  easily  tillable,  it  is  ordinarily  used  for 
growing  crops.  Under  general  conditions,  the  dairy  cow  can  not 
compete  with  crops  for  the  use  of  land.    That  is,  land  will  pay 


286  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

better  in  producing  staple  crops  than  in  producing  pasture  for 
cows,  if  it  is  well  adapted  to  crop  production.  Though  some  ex- 
ceptions may  be  found  in  regions  of  high-priced  milk,  this  is  a 


Size 

1.  Adapted  to  kind  of  farming 

Fields 

2.  Shape  and  size 

3.  Nearness  to  farmstead 

Topography 

4.  As  affecting  ease  of  cultivation 

5.  As  affecting  production 

6.  As  affecting  erosion  and  loss  of  fertility 

7.  As  affecting  air  drainage 

Fertility 

8.  Natural 

9.  Condition 

Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil 

10.  As  affecting  economy  of  cultivation 

11.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 

12.  As  affecting  loss  of  soil  fertility 

13.  As  affecting  kinds  of  possible  crops 

Drainage 

14.  Natural 

15.  Artificial 

Condition 

16.  Freedom  from  stumps,  stones,  weeds,  waste 

land,  etc 

Climate 

17.  As  affecting  animal  and  crop  production 

18.  As  affecting  number  of  days  of  labor 

Healthfulness 

19.  As  an  economic  factor 

Location 

20.  Distance  to  market 

21 .  Roadways 

22.  Local  markets 

23.  Shipping  facilities 

24.  Neighbors  as  an  economic  factor 

25.  Labor  supply  of  neighborhood 


Names  of  farms 


Fig.  95. — Score  card  for  farms. 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM 


287 


26.  R.  F.  D.,  telephone,  trolleys,  etc 

27.  Churches,  school,  grange,  etc.,  as  economic 

factors 

Taxes 

28.  Per  cent  on  cash  value 

Water  Supply 

29.  Running  water,  wells 

Improvements 

30.  Site  of  farmstead 

31.  House  as  adapted  to  needs  of  farm 

32.  Other  buildings 

33.  Fences;  kind,  condition,  arrangement 

34.  Timber,  orchards,  vineyards,  etc 

Investment 

35.  Probability  of  an  increase  in  value 

Acreage 

36.  Total  acres 

37.  Acres  tillable 

38.  Acres  pasture,  not  tillable 

39.  Acres  woods 

40.  Acres  roads,  waste,  etc 

Estimated  Total  Value  of 

41.  Tillable  area 

42.  Pasture 

43.  Woods 

44.  Barns 

45.  Houses 

Total 

Price  asked 


Names  of  farms 


Acres 


Fig.  95. — Score  card  for  farms — (Continued). 


general  rule.  As  a  result  of  this  and  because  much  of  our  rolling 
or  hilly  land  can  not  be  used  for  anything  else,  we  usually  find 
dairy  farms  located  in  such  sections. 

(4)  Select  a  region  adapted  to  the  product  you  wish  to  sell.  — 
Some  dairy  sections  sell  their  product  in  the  form  of  fluid  milk, 
while  other  well-defined  sections  sell  their  product  to  be  made 
into  butter. 


288  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

The  limiting  factor  is  transportation,  or  distance  to  market. 
The  section  immediately  surrounding  a  city  must  produce  the 
fluid  milk  for  that  city.  Since  milk  is  a  perishable  product  and 
can  not  be  shipped  long  distances  or  kept  long  periods,  the  city 
must  always  pay  a  sufficient  price  to  induce  the  neighboring  farm- 
ers to  sell  their  milk  as  fluid  milk  rather  than  to  be  made  up  into 
manufactured  products.  The  size  of  this  fluid  milk  zone  will 
vary  directly  with  the  size  of  the  city.  The  zone  for  New  York 
City  extends  approximately  three  hundred  miles  from  the  city 
limits. 

All  of  the  region  so  located  that  it  can  not  market  its  milk 
directly  to  consumers  as  fluid  milk  finds  it  necessary  to  produce 
some  product  which  is  not  perishable  and  which  can  either  be 
shipped  long  distances  or  stored  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Thus  we  find  the  great  butter-  and  cheese-making  regions  grad- 
ually shifting  further  and  further  away  from  the  larger  centers  of 
population. 


3.  —  Selecting  the  Dairy  Farm 

Alter  you  have  chosen  your  region,  the  next  important  problem 
is  to  select  your  particular  farm.  Most  men  farm  during  their 
entire  active  business  life  upon  the  place  they  first  purchase.  It 
is  especially  important,  then,  to  select  a  farm  that  is  capable  of 
returning  a  profit. 

(1)  Select  a  farm  of  profitable  size.  —  A  very  small  farm  is 
incapable  of  returning  a  large  profit  from  the  dairy  business. 
A  very  large  farm  contains  a  considerable  risk  and  requires  great 
executive  skill  in  order  to  make  it  profitable.  The  family  farm, 
or  the  moderate-sized  farm;  the  farm  that  employs  two  to  three 
men  throughout  the  year;  the  farm  that  has  from  twenty  to  fifty 
dairy  cows  gives  opportunity  for  a  business  of  profitable  size. 

If  the  very  small  farm  is  purchased,  or  inherited,  or  in  any 
other  way  comes  under  your  management,  some  provision  should 
be  made  for  enlarging  the  l)usiness   by    renting  or  purchasing 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM  289 

additional  land.  The  size  of  the  farm  is  not  always  indicated  by 
the  total  number  of  acres.  The  number  of  crop  acres  and  the 
number  of  cows  it  will  support  are  better  measures  of  size.  The 
size  should  also  be  sufficient  to  provide  for  crops  raised  for  sale, 
in  addition  to  those  fed  to  the  dairy  cows.  The  necessity  for  this 
is  shown  in  Chapter  XXVII. 

(2)  Select  a  productive  farm.  —  A  dairy  farm  should  have  a 
considerable  amount  of  natural  fertility.  A  well-organized  dairy 
business  that  provides  for  saving  the  manure  and  applying  it  to 
the  fields  without  loss  will  result  in  increased  fertility  for  any 
farm.  A  farm  that  is  naturally  unproductive,  however,  may 
cause  the  business  to  be  conducted  at  a  loss  several  years,  until 
sufficient  manure  has  been  added  to  increase  its  productivity. 

The  condition  of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  acquiring  the  farm  is 
very  important.  If  the  soil  is  fertile  and  in  a  high  state  of  pro- 
ductivity, the  dairyman  finds  it  possible  to  make  a  profit  from 
the  very  start.  It  is  like  buying  into  a  well-organized  business, 
capable  of  returning  profits  from  the  first  day  that  the  new 
owner  steps  in. 

(3)  Select  a  farm  with  a  good  field  layout.  —  A  farm  may  be 
so  arranged  that  its  pastures,  or  some  of  its  fields,  are  so  far  from 
the  buildings  as  to  make  the  business  unprofitable.  If  cows  must 
be  driven  a  mile  morning  and  night  to  and  from  the  pasture,  a 
great  deal  of  expensive  labor  is  lost  and  the  milk  flow  will  be 
decreased  because  of  the  energy  used  up  in  traveling  so  long  a 
distance.  If  all  of  the  manure  must  be  hauled  uphill  from  the 
barn  to  the  fields,  this  Tvork  will  be  expensive.  If  all  of  the  prod- 
ucts must  be  hauled  uphill  from  the  fields  to  the  barn,  the  crop 
production  will  be  expensive.  A  compact,  economical,  farm 
layout,  with  all  the  fields  and  the  pasture  located  within  a  reason- 
able distance  of  the  buildings,  will  result  in  such  a  saving  of 
labor  that  the  farm  will  be  worth  considerably  more  money  than 
one  with  a  poorer  arrangement. 

(4)  Select  a  farm  with  good  buildings.  —  A  farm  which  has 
well-constructed,  economically  arranged  dairy  barns  is  ready  for 
business  at  once.    If  the  buildings  must  be  rearranged,  the  cost  of 


290 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


rearrangement  must  be  added  to  the  original  cost  of  the  farm. 
Moreover,  the  dairy  farmer  must  spend  considerable  time  for  one 
or  more  seasons  in  the  relatively  unproductive  work  of  repairing 
buildings,  when  his  time  should  be  spent  in  the  productive  work 
of  raising  crops  or  caring  for  the  dairy  herd. 

(5)    Select   for    good    water    supply.  —  Milk    contains    about 


Fig.  96.  —  A  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water  is  indispensable  for  the  dairy 
farm.     This  pond  is  used  also  for  raising  trout. 


88  per  cent  of  water.  The  dairy  cow  requires  large  quantities  of 
pure,  fresh  water.  The  farm  that  has  an  abundant  supply  of 
water,  piped  to  the  buildings,  or  that  can  be  easily  piped  to  the 
buildings,  and  deHvered  by  gravity,  is  worth  many  hundred  dollars 
more  than  the  farm  that  must  pump  its  water  or  that  depends 
upon  some  mechanical  means  of  bringing  the  water  to  the  build- 
ings. Gasohne  engines,  windmills,  and  other  devices  are  Ukely 
to  be  expensive,  troublesome,  and  uncertain.     The  actual  cost 


CHOOSING  AND   BUYING  A   DAIRY  FARM  291 

of  their  upkeep  often  amounts  to  the  interest  on  a  considerable 
investment. 

(6)  Select  a  healthful  location.  —  The  farm  is  not  only  the 
place  of  business,  but  also  the  home.  The  buildings  should  be 
located  where  there  is  good  air  drainage,  a  pure  water  supply, 
and  healthful  general  conditions.  Fortunately,  the  cool  and 
humid  climate  of  most  dairy  regions  is  usually  accompanied  by 
healthful  conditions. 

(7)  Select  for  good  marketing  possibilities.  —  Milk  that  goes 
to  a  creamery  or  a  cheese  factory  is  generally  sold  for  a  lower 
price  than  fluid  milk  for  the  large  cities.  If  the  farm  is  located 
so  far  from  market  that  it  can  not  ship  milk  to  the  city,  the  smaller 
profits  to  be  made  from  producing  butter-  or  cheese-factory  milk 
should  be  reflected  fully  in  a  lower  farm  price.  Some  farms  are 
located  so  far  from  market  that  the  cost  of  hauling  the  milk  is 
prohibitive.  The  handicap  of  great  distance  may  be  overcome 
sometimes  by  production  of  a  large  quantity  and  by  such  pro- 
visions for  cooperative  hauling  that  one  man  and  one  team  or 
truck  can  market  a  full  load  of  milk  at  each  trip.  In  general, 
therefore,  it  is  evident  that  distance  is  a  formidable  obstacle  to 
profit  and  that  the  greater  the  distance  to  market  the  lower  should 
be  the  price  paid  for  a  farm. 

(8)  Neighbors  and  social  conditions.  —  In  selecting  a  farm, 
the  prospective  dairj^man  should  bear  in  mind  that  his  friends 
and  business  associates  will  be  chosen  from  among  his  more  im- 
mediate neighbors.  The  character  of  the  neighborhood  where 
the  farm  is  located  and  the  general  social  conditions  of  the  region 
should  be  investigated.  The  dairyman  must  remember  that  his 
children  will  grow  up  in  the  region  he  chooses  and  that  their 
development  will  be  influenced  very  largely  by  their  environment. 

Churches  and  schools  of  the  region  will  depend  to  a  consider- 
able extent  upon  the  character  of  the  neighboring  people. 

If  there  are  many  successful  farmers  in  the  region,  their  suc- 
cess will  be  an  inspiration  to  the  newcomer.  Their  accumulated 
experiences  will  also  be  valuable  aids  to  his  financial  success. 


292  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

(9)  Select  for  probable  development.  —  The  possibility  of 
macadamized  roads,  new  railroads,  and  trolley  lines  should  be 
considered.  Probable  rise  or  fall  in  land  values  may  well  be  an 
important  factor  in  choosing  your  particular  farm.  Possible 
public  improvements  in  the  community,  such  as  the  building  of 
new  schools  or  the  opening  up  of  new  social  or  religious  institu- 
tions, are  worth  serious  consideration. 

4.  —  Heed  the  Advice  of  Cato 

Essential  factors  to  be  considered  in  choosing  and  buying  a 
farm,  factors  in  harmony  with  those  discussed  in  this  chapter 
and  as  important  to-day  as  in  the  days  of  ancient  Rome,  were 
summed  up  by  Cato  in  this  excellent  advice : 

"When  you  have  decided  to  purchase  a  farm  be  careful  not 
to  buy  rashly;  do  not  spare  you  visits  and  be  not  content  with 
a  single  tour  of  inspection.  The  more  you  go  the  more  will  the 
place  please  you,  if  it  be  worth  your  attention.  Give  heed  to  the 
appearance  of  the  neighborhood, — a  flourishing  country  should 
show  its  prosperity. 

"Take  great  care  that  you  choose  a  good  climate,  not  subject 
to  destructive  storms,  and  a  soil  that  is  naturally  strong.  If  pos- 
sible your  farm  should  be  in  a  healthful  situation  where  labor 
and  cattle  can  be  had,  well  watered,  near  a  good-sized  townn  and 
either  near  the  sea  or  a  navigable  river,  or  else  on  a  good  and 
much  frequented  road.  Choose  a  place  which  has  not  often 
changed  ownership,  one  which  is  sold  unwillingly,  one  that  has 
buildings  in  good  repair. 

"Beware  that  you  do  not  rashly  condemn  the  experience  of 
others.  It  is  better  to  buy  from  a  man  who  has  farmed  success- 
fully and  built  well. 

"It  is  not  the  number  of  farming  implements,  but  what  is  done 
with  them  that  counts.  Where  you  find  few  tools,  it  is  not  an  ex- 
pensive farm  to  operate.  Know  that  with  the  farm  as  with  a 
man,  however  productive  it  may  be,  if  it  has  the  spending  habit, 
not  much  will  be  left  over." 


CHOOSING  AND  BUYING  A  DAIRY  FARM  293 

1.  When  is  the  best  time  to  examine  a  farm?     Hu  :  73. 

2.  What  is  the  importance  to  the  dairy  farm  of  shipping  facihties? 

Hu  :  63. 

3.  What  factors  should  be  considered  in  selecting  a  farm  for  a 

home?     Hu  :  5. 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  comparative  advantages  of  new  and  old 

regions?     W-FM  :  513. 

5.  Where  can  you  find  out  about  the  cUmate  of  a  region?     Hu  :  51. 

6.  Does  the  cUmate  of  a  region  change?     W-FM  :  496. 

7.  What  is  the  value  of  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil? 

W-FM  :  505. 

8.  What  four  methods  may  be  used  in  determining  the  fertility 

of  the  soil?     Hu  :  40. 

9.  What  kind  of  trees  grow  naturally  on  fertile  soils?     What  kind 

grow  on  infertile  soils? 

10.  What  plants  are  indicative  of  fertile  soil?     What  ones  are 

indicators  of  infertile  soil?     W-FM  :  511. 

11.  Use  the  score  card  and  score  two  near-by  farms. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

FINANCING  THE  DAIRY  FARM  BUSINESS 

1.  What  are  the  first  steps  toward  farm  ownership? 

2.  How  may  a  real  estate  purchase  be  financed? 

3.  How  may  the  stocking  of  a  dairy  farm  be  financed? 

4.  How  may  the  equipping  of  a  dairy  farm  be  financed? 

5.  How    much    cash    capital    is    needed  in  the    dairy    farm 

business? 

6.  How  may  you  keep  your  credit  good? 

7.  Make   out  a   credit  statement   at   the   beginning   of  each 

year's  business 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems  that  confront  the  young  man 
who  wishes  to  be  a  dairy  farmer  is  that  of  financing  the  business. 
As  land  becomes  more  valuable  and  as  the  cost  of  farm  equip- 
ment increases,  the  amount  of  capital  required  for  a  successful 
dairy  farm  becomes  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  be  faced.  If  we 
are  to  organize  a  farm  of  sufficient  size  to  insure  a  profitable 
business,  as  we  shall  see  in  Chapter  XXVII,  we  should  have  from 
one  hundred  twenty  to  one  hundred  forty  acres  for  crops,  or 
from  one  hundred  fifty  to  two  hundred  fifty  total  acres.  The 
investment  in  real  estate  alone  for  such  a  farm  will  ordinarily 
be  from  eight  to  twenty  thousand  dollars,  if  the  land  is  to  be  of 
such  a  quality  that  we  can  secure  fairly  good  crop  production. 
A  herd  of  grade  cows  will  cost  several  thousand  dollars  more. 
The  equipment  for  such  a  farm,  even  if  purchased  in  the  most 
reasonable  manner  and  some  of  it  secondhand,  will  cost  a  mini- 
mum of  $1,000  at  the  present  time.  The  cost  of  feed,  other 
supplies,  and  horses  must  be  added  to  get  the  total  capital  re- 

294 


FINANCING  THE  DAIRY  FARM  BUSINESS  295 

quired.     It  is  seldom  possible  for  the  farmer  to  borrow  more 
than  sixty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  a  farm  on  a  first  mortgage. 

1.  —  What  Are  the  First  Steps  toward  Farm  Ownership? 

Few  young  men  who  expect  to  farm  are  in  possession  of  even 
forty  per  cent  of  the  capital  needed  to  finance  such  a  lousiness. 


ft. 

^  ^ 

—=.=4^ 

1 

7^ 

'"-^^ 

-'"v"-r  *'"'- 

Fig.  97. — Just  starting  to  acquiri'  skill  m  fannintj;.     I'lic  first  step  towards 
financing  the  funu  business. 


If  you  have  no  capital,  a  step  toward  getting  started  in  the  dairy 
business  is  to  take  a  job  where  you  can  save  some  money  each 
year.  One  of  the  best  steps  of  this  sort  is  to  work  as  a  hired  man 
on  a  good  dairy  farm  where  you  can  both  save  money  and  gain 
helpful  experience.  If  you  work  industriously  on  a  farm  in  one 
region  for  two  or  three  years,  you  will  be  pretty  sure  to  find  at 
the  end  of  that  time  that  you  have  established  for  yourself  in 


296  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

that  region  a  credit  equal  to  several  times  the  amount  of  money 
which  you  have  saved.  At  the  same  time  you  will  have  gained 
experience  that  might  have  cost  you  a  great  many  hundred 
dollars,  if  you  had  gained  it  on  your  own  farm  without  the  super- 
vision of  the  successful  dairyman  for  whom  you  have  been  working. 

After  you  have  saved  a  few  hundred  dollars,  the  next  step 
may  be  to  rent  a  good  farm  on  shares.  A  large  number  of  our 
dairy  farms  are  operated  by  tenants.  Observe  carefully  while 
working  as  a  hired  man  and  you  will  be  able  to  decide  which 
tenant  farms  in  the  neighborhood  are  profitable  and  which  ones 
are  not.  Rent  a  faran  having  a  size  and  quality  of  business  suffi- 
cient to  return  a  better  income  than  you  can  make  as  a  hired 
man.  There  are  many  farmers  who,  because  of  age,  wish  to 
retire  from  business  and  who  are  glad  to  rent  their  farms  to 
good  tenants  and  to  furnish  them  with  more  than  half  of  the 
cows  and  often  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  horses 
and  equipment  needed. 

The  writer  is  very  familiar  with  several  large  and  important 
dairy  regions.  During  the  past  ten  years  he  has  never  known 
of  a  steady,  industrious  farm  hand  who  was  not  able  to  rent  a 
good  dairy  farm  on  shares  after  having  worked  in  the  region  for 
three  years.  During  the  same  time,  he  has  seen  scores  of  such 
men  pass  in  rapid  succession  through  the  stages  of  hired  man 
and  tenant  farmer,  and  finally  become  farm  o\vners.  Investi- 
gations have  shown  that  practically  all  of  our  successful  farmers 
of  to-day  have  passed  through  these  three  stages.  There  is  some 
danger  of  the  tenant's  attempting  to  purchase  a  farm  before  he 
is  financially  able  to  do  so.  If  you  have  less  than  $3,000  capital, 
it  is  generally  advisable  to  rent  a  farm  in  such  a  way  that  you 
will  have  the  use  of  ten  or  fifteen  thousand  dollars  more  capital, 
rather  than  to  attempt  to  purchase  the  small  farm  business  which 
you  would  be  able  to  finance  with  this  small  amount  of  money. 
If  you  have  from  three  to  four  thousand  dollars  capital,  you 
can  often  rent  one  of  the  largest  and  best  farms  in  the  region, 
which  is  capable  of  returning  the  tenant  a  labor  income  several 
times  larger  than  the  average  income  received  by  farm  owners. 


FINANCING  THE   DAIRY  FARM   BUSINESS  297 

In  regions  of  high-priced  land  a  proportionately  larger  amount 
of  capital  is  required  to  purchase  a  farm.  In  such  regions,  how- 
ever, there  are  generally  more  farms  to  rent,  and  the  opportun- 
ities are  even  better  for  a  tenant  than  in  regions  of  low-priced  land. 

1.  What  is  the  first  step  that  a  young  man  should  take  toward 

becoming  a  farm  owner?     W-FM  :  305. 

2.  What  is  the  importance  of  education  to  the  farmer? 

W-FM  :  306. 

3.  How  much  capital  should  a  man  have  before  starting  as  a 

tenant?     How  much  capital  should  a  tenant  have  before 
becoming  a  farm  owner?     W-FM  :  310. 

4.  Why  is  share  rent  usually  more  costly  to  the  tenant  than  cash 

rent?     W-FM   313. 

6.  What  are  the  opportunities  in  farming  as  a  part-owner? 
W-FM:  314. 

2.  —  How  May  a  Real  Estate  Purchase  Be  Financed? 

Most  banks  will  lend  on  a  mortgage  an  amount  of  money  equal 
to  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  a  good  farm.  The 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Association  will  lend  approximately  the  same 
percentage  on  a  long  time  amortization  plan,  by  which  the  pur- 
chaser pays  for  a  farm  in  from  thirty  to  forty  years.  Many  private 
individuals  will  lend  somewhat  more  than  this  percentage.  In 
regions  where  land  has  become  stabilized  in  value,  where  land 
booms  and  speculations  are  not  present,  and  where  the  normal 
interest  rate  is  less  than  seven  per  cent,  the  farmer  can  generally 
obtain  a  larger  loan  on  his  farm  through  local  banks  or  private 
individuals  than  he  can  through  the  Federal  Loan  Association. 

In  many  cases,  farmers  who  have  owned  farms  for  a  great 
many  years  and  have  considerable  faith  in  their  value  are  willing, 
when  they  sell  their  farms,  to  take  a  mortgage  of  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  the  real  estate  if  they  know  that  the  man  to  whom 


298  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

they  are  selling  is  a  capable,  industrious  farmer.  In  the  dairy- 
regions  of  more  stabilized  values  there  are  many  sales  every  year 
in  which  a  payment  of  only  $1000  is  made  in  order  to  secure  a 
farm  worth  from  eight  to  fifteen  thousand  dollars.  Some  of  these 
sales  are  made  on  the  contract  plan,  by  which  the  purchaser  does 
not  secure  the  deed  until  he  has  paid  in  a  certain  amount,  gener- 
ally about  forty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  land.  Some  of  these 
sales  are  made  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  seller  taking  both  a  first 
and  second  mortgage  on  the  property.  Occasionally  the  first 
mortgage  is  placed  with  a  bank,  and  the  seller  takes  the  second 
mortgage. 

In  all  cases  where  sales  are  made  with  such  a  small  percentage 
paid  down,  the  seller  must  be  satisfied  that  the  purchaser  will  be 
able  to  make  a  success  of  the  farm;  and  this  means  generally 
that  the  purchaser  has  been  farming  in  the  region  for  several 
years.  This  is  one  of  the  big  reasons  why  the  man  who  has  no 
capital  and  who  wishes  to  own  a  farm  should  work  in  the  region 
where  he  wishes  to  farm,  previous  to  attempting  to  purchase. 

3.  —  How  May  the  Stocking  of  a  Dairy  Farm 
Be  Financed? 

If  the  young  dairy  farmer  starts  as  a  tenant,  he  will  ordinarily 
furnish  not  more  than  half  of  the  dairy  cows.  In  many  cases 
the  owner  furnishes  all  of  the  cows.  In  any  case,  half  of  the  calves 
raised  will  ordinarily  belong  to  the  tenant.  With  good  judgment 
in  selection  and  reasonable  care,  the  tenant  should  be  able  to 
build  up  a  good  dairy  herd  in  from  three  to  five  years  on  any 
farm.  Cows  purchased  are  expensive,  require  a  large  capital 
outlay,  and  in  many  cases  are  unsatisfactory.  It  is  often  custom- 
ary, in  dairy  regions,  to  sell  cows  to  a  responsible  man  and  take 
a  negotiable  note  in  payment.  Such  a  note  usually  matures  in 
three  or  four  months.  If  the  purchaser  has  kept  his  credit  good, 
the  bank  is  generally  willing  to  renew  the  note  provided  a  small 
payment  is  made.  In  this  way  many  farmers  purchase  cows  and 
pay  for  them  out  of  their  milk  checks. 


FINANCING  THE  DAIRY  FARM  BUSINESS 


299 


The  farmer  who  keeps  his  credit  good  always  makes  a  payment 
when  a  note  comes  due,  makes  his  payments  promptly,  and 
never  allows  a  note  to  become  overdue.  He  generally  can  obtain 
a  considerable  amount  of  credit  by  building  up  confidence  in 
this  way. 


lfj 

R^^aiL'  %  -  V. 

mmSI^^'^'^ 

m 

■X 

^^^^^P^P^y  15l»                 , 

WSn 

i-iim 

HM 

^  /  /r  vx^'^v^^^  i  ^4-/ ^ 

'^  hIh 

■ '  .A* 

'  ^wssbB 

Fig.  98.  —  Efficient  ratio  of  man  power  to  horse  power. 


4.  —  How  May  the  Equipping  of  a  Dairy  Farm  Be  Financed? 

Farm  equipment  and  work  horses  can  sometimes  be  bought 
on  deferred  payments  by  giving  either  a  chattel  mortgage  or  a 
note.  In  many  cases  purchasing  by  such  a  plan  is  more  expensive, 
due  to  exorbitant  rates  of  interest.  It  is  generally  better  business 
practice,  wherever  possible,  to  pay  cash  for  horses  and  farm 
equipment. 


300  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

5.  —  How  Much  Cash  Capital  Is  Needed  in  a  Dairy 
Farm  Business? 

One  of  the  advantages  in  carrying  on  dairy  farming  is  that  it 
requires  a  smaller  amount  of  cash  capital  than  does  any  other 
sort  of  farm  business.  The  dairyman  receives  pay  for  his  milk 
either  monthly  or  semimonthly.  He  is  generally  able  to  pay 
his  running  expenses  out  of  his  regular  milk  check  and  for  that 
reason  finds  it  unnecessary  to  have  any  considerable  cash  balance 
on  hand.  Nevertheless,  the  dairyman  who  keeps  on  hand  a 
considerable  amount  of  cash  capital  is  often  able  to  make  a 
very  considerable  saving  in  his  expenses.  There  are  many  things 
that  can  be  purchased  at  a  discount  for  cash. 

Timely  buying  will  save  a  considerable  amount  on  the  feed 
bill.  All  feeds  are  generally  lower  during  certain  months  than 
at  any  other  time  during  the  year.  The  manufactured  feeds, 
such  as  gluten,  hominy,  and  wheat  bran,  are  generally  lowest  in 
price  during  June,  July,  and  August.  Other  feeds,  such  as  grain, 
oats,  barley,  and  buckwheat,  are  generally  lowest  in  price  during 
the  month  when  the  bulk  of  that  feed  comes  on  the  market.  If 
the  dairyman  has  sufficient  cash  capital  to  purchase  these  feeds 
during  the  months  of  low  prices,  he  can  make  a  better  profit  on 
his  farm  business. 

The  dairyman  who  keeps  a  cash  balance  of  from  two  to  five 
hundred  dollars  ready  for  emergencies,  even  though  he  may 
owe  his  bank  that  much  or  more,  is  generally  able  to  make  greater 
profits  than  can  the  dairyman  who  has  no  bank  notes  and  owns 
all  of  his  property  but  keeps  no  cash  balance  as  a  checking  account. 

6.  —  How  May  You  Keep  Your  Credit  Good? 

Credit,  in  either  the  dairy  business  or  any  other  business, 
depends  as  much  upon  moral  character  as  upon  the  property 
possessed.  Every  man  handling  the  credit  department  for  a 
business  house  gives  a  certain  amount  of  credit  on  what  he  calls 
the  moral  risk.    If  you  are  known  in  your  community  as  being 


FINANCING  THE  DAIRY  FARM  BUSINESS  301 

sober,  industrious,  and  honest,  and  as  living  a  moral  life,  it  will 
be  worth  to  you  many  hundreds  of  dollars  of  credit  rating.  The 
young  man  who  starts  farming  in  a  community  where  he  is  loiown 
may  secure  a  total  credit  on  these  factors  totaling  several  thou- 
sands of  dollars.  The  young  man  who  starts  as  a  hired  man  or 
tenant  and  proves  himself  a  good  moral  risk  is  accumulating 
credit  much  faster  than  he  accumulates  money,  no  matter  how 
large  a  proportion  of  his  wages  he  saves;  but  the  larger  the  pro- 
portion of  wages  he  saves,  the  greater  of  course  will  be  the  total 
amount  of  the  credit  he  gains. 

Many  farmers  injure  their  credit  by  not  paying  their  bills 
promptly.  The  farmer,  who  allows  a  note  to  become  overdue, 
accumulates  a  quantity  of  unpaid  bills,  or  in  other  ways  is  neg- 
lectful in  business,  soon  loses  credit  in  his  community,  even 
though  he  may  have  a  considerable  amount  of  capital.  The 
farmer  with  a  very  small  capital  who  meets  all  of  his  obligations 
promptly,  even  though  at  times  he  can  make  only  very  small 
payments,  finds  that  his  credit  is  always  good, 

7.  —  Make  Out  a  Credit  Statement  at  the  Beginning  of  Each 
Year's  Business. 

Every  farmer  who  uses  any  credit  m  his  business  should  make 
out  a  credit  statement  at  the  beginning  of  each  year  when  he 
takes  his  yearly  inventory.  A  credit  statement  is  simply  a  sum- 
marized inventory  of  the  farm  business  with  some  additional 
information,  such  as  the  amount  of  fire  insurance  carried,  the 
amount  of  life  insurance  carried,  and  any  other  items  of  general 
interest  about  the  business.  This  credit  statement  should  be 
filed  with  the  banker  who  is  furnishing  credit.  The  banker  is 
lending  other  people's  money  and  has  a  right  to  this  information. 
The  farmer  has  the  right  to  the  additional  credit  that  such  a 
statement  will  obtain  for  him. 

Most  business  farmers  use  a  considerable  amount  of  credit. 
It  is  much  better  for  everyone  concerned  if  this  credit  is  obtained 
from  the  bank  rather  than  from  the  feed  dealer,  or  the  merchant. 


302  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

It  is  nearly  always  much  cheaper  to  obtain  credit  from  the  bank 
than  from  people  engaged  in  other  lines  of  business. 

An  important  step  toward  putting  a  farm  on  a  good  business 
basis  is  to  take  a  farm  inventory.  But  it  is  evident  that  other 
steps,  no  less  important,  are  to  prepare  a  summarized  inven- 
tory and  supplement  it  as  above  described  as  a  credit  statement, 
and  then  to  present  this  credit  statement  to  the  bank  as  a  basis 
of  credit. 

1.  Obtain  a  blank  lease  for  share  renting  a  farm;    also  one  for 

cash  renting  a  farm.  Fill  out  each  of  these,  having  in  mind 
a  particular  farm  in  your  neighborhood. 

2.  Study  tables  showing  a  comparison  of  crop  yields  on  farms 

operated  by  tenants  with  those  on  farms  operated  by  owners. 
K-221  :  13. 

3.  What  are  the  usual  methods  of  leasing  land  in  your  locality 

and  what  are  the  usual  provisions  of  each  type  of  leases? 

4.  What  causes  farm  tenancy?     M-167  :  5. 

6.  What  was  the  average  interest  rate  received  by  landlords  in 
Missouri?     M-167  :  12. 

6.  What  was  the  average  interest  rate  received  by  landlords  in 

Kansas?     K-221  :  9. 

7.  Secure  a  blank  deed  and  fill  it  in  for  a  farm  in  your  neighbor- 

hood. 

8.  Ask  the  local  banker  to  show  you  the  correct  method  of  drawing 

a  note.  Find  out  the  usual  rate  of  interest,  for  how  long  a 
time  a  note  is  accepted,  what  percentage  of  the  face  value 
should  be  paid  in  case  of  renewal. 

9.  What  are  the  usual  methods  of  leasing  land  in  Kansas?    Give  the 

general  provisions  of  each  type  of  leases.     K-221  :  17. 

10.  What  are  the  usical  methods  of  leasing  land  in  Missouri?  M-167  :  41. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

ORGANIZING  A  SUCCESSFUL  DAIRY 
FARMING  BUSINESS 

1.  Figure  your  labor  income,  and  measure  your  success  by  it 

2.  Conduct  a  large  farm  business  because  it  pays  better  than 

a  small  one 

3.  Keep  high-producing  cows  because  they  are  most  profitable 

4.  Produce  good  crop  yields  because  they  pay  best 

5.  Operate  a  well-balanced  farm  because  diversified   produc- 

tion pays  the  largest  profits 

6.  Conclusion:  Aim  at  four  essentials  for  success 

A  successful  dairy  farm  business  does  not  consist  of  cows  alone. 
It  should  be  made  up  of  many  enterprises.  In  organizing  these 
enterprises  into  a  business,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  certain  fun- 
damental principles.  The  importance  of  some  of  these  principles 
has  been  set  forth  in  previous  chapters.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
closing  chapter  to  restate  these  principles,  to  reenforce  them, 
and  to  indicate  ways  by  which  success  in  dairy  farming  may 
be  accurately  measured. 

1.  —  Figure  Your  Labor  Income  and  Measure 
Your  Success  by  It 

The  best  measure  of  the  profit  made  by  a  dairy  farmer  is  his 
''labor  income."  This  term  indicates  the  amount  of  money  he 
has  left  after  paying  all  the  operating  expenses  of  the  farm  and 
after  deducting  mterest  on  the  money  invested  ui  it. 

An  illustration  of  the  items  considered  in  figuring  labor  income 
is  given  below  in  the  table  of  Fig.  99.*      The  "average  capital" 

*Many  of  the  tables  in  this  chapter  are  from  New  York  Cornell  Bulletin 
No.  349. 

303 


304  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

listed  in  this  table  includes  land,  buildings,  live  stock,  machinery, 
supplies,  and  cash  required  to  run  the  farm.  Any  increase  in 
inventory  during  the  year  is  entered  as  a  receipt.  Any  decrease 
in  inventory  is  entered  as  an  expense.  The  expenses  do  not  in- 
clude personal  expenses,  such  as  the  cost  of  clothing,  coal,  etc. 
They  do  include,  however,  the  value  of  board  furnished  to  hired 
help,  and  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  farm  labor  done  by 
members  of  the  family  for  which  cash  was  not  paid. 

The  amount,  $1,155,  in  the  fourth  line  of  this  table  was  the  sum 
earned  by  the  farmer's  money,  by  the  farmer's  work,  and  by  the 
labor  of  his  family.  We  know  that  the  farmer  could  lend  his 
money  in  such  a  way  as  to  return  him  five  per  cent  interest. 


Average  capital 

Average  receipts 

Average  business  expenses 

Receipts  less  expenses 

Interest  at  5  per  cent 

Income  from  unpaid  labor 

Value  of  unpaid  labor  except  owner's. 
Labor  income 


$9,006 

1,890 

735 

1,155 

450 

705 

96 

609 


Fig.  99. — Method  of  figuring  labor  income. 

Subtracting  interest  at  this  rate,  and  the  value  of  unpaid  labor, 
except  the  owner's,  from  the  net  receipts,  we  get  the  value 
there  listed  of  the  farmer's  labor,  or  his  labor  income;  namely, 
$609.  This  labor  income  is  comparable  to  a  hired  man's  wages, 
when  the  hired  man  is  furnished  with  a  house,  garden,  and  farm 
products. 

Labor  income  as  a  measuring  unit  is  used  chiefly  as  a  means 
of  comparing  the  profits  made  by  various  farms  in  order  to  deter- 
mine why  some  farmers  are  more  successful  than  others. 

As  a  dairy  farmer,  you  should  figure  your  labor  income  every 
year  and  measure  your  success  by  it. 

1.  Problem.  An  Ohio  farmer's  inventory  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  was  $12,125.00.  At  the  end  of  the  year  his  total  inventory 
amounted  to  $12,250.00    During  the  year  his  farm  sales  were  as 


ORGANIZING  A   DAIRY  FARMING   BUSINESS         305 

follows:  crops,  $1375.00;  dairy  products,  $3520.00;  eggs,  $175.- 
00;  miscellaneous,  $245.00.  His  farm  expenses  were  as  follows: 
labor,  $1237.00;  feed,  $1100.00,  fertilizer,  $250.00;  taxes, 
$250.00;  other  expenses,  $1045.00.  What  was  his  labor  in- 
come? 

2.  Problem.     Another  farmer  in  the  same  neighborhood  had  a  total 

inventory  of  $25,000.00  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  $25,- 
250.00  at  the  end  of  the  year.  His  sales  for  the  year  were  as 
follows:  crops,  $424.00;  dairy  products,  $4500.00;  miscella- 
neous, $117.00.  His  farm  expenses  for  the  year  were:  labor, 
$650.00;  feed,  $1800.00;  fertiUzer,  $125.00;  taxes,  $475.00; 
other  expenses  $750.00.     What  was  his  labor  income? 

3.  Which  of  the  above  men  is  the  more  successful  farmer? 

4.  Question.     If  the   Ohio   farmer  was  in  debt  for  $10,000.00  and 

the  other  farmer  had  inherited  his  farm  business  and  had  no 
debts,  which  one  would  have  the  more  money  to  live  on  for  the 
year? 

2.  —  Conduct  a  Large  Farm  Business  Because  It 
Pays  Better  Than  a  Small  One 

Farm  management  surveys  in  many  different  states  have 
without  exception  disclosed  as  a  general  principle  of  farm  organi- 
zation, that  the  large  farm  business  pays  better  than  the  small 
one.  Such  surveys  in  New  York  have  indicated  a  relationship 
between  the  size  of  the  farm  business  and  the  average  labor 
income  and  this  is  shown  in  the  table  of  Fig.  100.  Size  of  busi- 
ness in  this  table  is  measured  by  the  total  number  of  acres  in 
the  farm.  At  the  time  that  the  figures  were  taken  (1907-1911), 
a  good  hired  man  received  approximately  $400  per  year,  plus 
tenant  house  and  farm  products.  These  figures  show  that  the 
average  farmer  with  less  than  fifty-one  acres,  was  receiving  less 
than  three-fourths  as  much  as  a  hired  man;  that  the  average 
farmer  with  from  fifty-one  to  one  hundred  acres,  was  receiving 
approximately  as  much  as  a  hired  man;  and  that  the  labor  in- 
come of  farmers  with  more  than  one  hundred  acres  increased 


306 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


constantly  as  the  farms  increased  in  size  up  to  a  size  of  two 
hundred  acres  or  more. 

The  per  cent  of  farms  making  labor  incomes  of  various  amounts 
is  indicated  in  the  table  of  Fig.  101.  It  will  be  observed  that  none 
of  the  farms  with  thirty  acres  or  less  made  as  high  as  $1,000 
labor  income,  that  only  three  per  cent  of  the  farms  between 
thirty-one  and  fifty  acres  made  $1,000  income,  but  that  forty- 
four  per  cent  of  the  farms  having  more  than  two  hundred  acres 
made  $1,000  labor  income,  or  more. 

There  are  various  other  ways  of  measuring  size  of  farm  busi- 
ness.    The  relation  of  capital  to  labor  income  is  indicated  in 


30  or  less . 

31-  50... 

51-100... 
101-150. . . 
151-200. . . 
Over  200.  . 


Number 
of  farms 

Average 

number  of 

acres  per 

farm 

74 

22 

141 

44 

616 

79 

572 

126 

304 

177 

281 

281 

Average 
labor 
income 


$121 
252 
402 
568 
776 
995 


Fig.  100. — Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  labor  income.  One  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  farms,  Tompkins,  Livingston,  and  Jefferson 
Counties,  New  York. 


the  table  of  Fig.  102,  taken  from  a  farm  management  survey  of 
Livingston  County,  New  York.  Here  again  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  farms  with  the  larger  capital  made  the  larger  profits,  and  that 
in  Livingston  County  at  this  time  the  farmer  who  was  using 
a  capital  of  less  than  $5,000  was  on  the  average  making  only 
about  three-fourths  as  much  as  a  hired  man.  It  required  a  capi- 
tal of  from  $15,000  to  $20,000  to  give  an  average  labor  income 
of  $1,000. 

A  better  way  of  measuring  size  of  business  is  by  comparing 
farms  on  the  basis  of  the  total  number  of  acres  of  crops.  Such  a 
comparison  is  contained  in  the  table  of  Fig.  103.  From  this  table 
it  will  be  seen  that  owners  of  farms  with  less  than  sixty  acres  of 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS 


307 


Per  cent  of  farms  of  each  size  making  labor  incomes  as 
designated 

Acreg 

Less 
than 
$1 

$1 

to 

$600 

$501 

to 
$1000 

$1001 

to 
$1500 

$1601 

to 
$2600 

Over 
$2600 

30  or  less          

27 
18 
11 
13 
9 
12 

70 
62 
55 
38 
31 
20 

3 
17 

28 
30 
27 
24 

0 
3 
5 
13 
22 
20 

0 
0 

1 

5 
9 

18 

0 

31-50 

51-100 

101-150 

151-200 

Over  200 

0 
0 
1 
2 

6 

Fig.  101. — Variations  in  labor  incomes  with  different  sizes  of  farms.  One 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  eighty-eight  farms,  Tompkins,  Livingston, 
and  Jefferson  Counties,  New  York. 

crops  on  the  average  made  no  more  than  hired  men.  The  labor 
income  increased  constantly  with  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
acres  of  crops.  Those  farms  that  had  over  one  hundred  forty 
acres  of  crops  showed  an  average  labor  income  of  $1,261. 

In  cases  where  the  total  capital,  the  total  acres,  or  the  total 
crop  acres  are  not  suitable  measures  of  size  of  business  or  in 
cases  where  we  are  measuring  a  business  that  includes  certain 
intensive  crops  as  well  as  dairy  cattle,  a  still  better  way  of  meas- 
uring the  size  of  the  business  is  to  compare  the  farms  as  to  the 
total  amount  of  work  done.     Adopting  this  unit  of  comparison, 


Capital 

Number 

of 

farms 

Average 
labor 
income 

$5,000  or  less 

87 
80 
112 
164 
62 
55 
18 

$    291 

5,001-  7,500 

407 

7,501-10,000.            .      . 

480 

10,001-15,000 

769 

15,001-20,000 

1,001 
1  062 

20,001-30,000 

Over    30,000 

1,691 

Fig.  102. — Capital  related  to  labor  income,  five  hundred  and  seventy-eight 
farms,  northern  Livingston  County,  New  York. 


308 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


we  measure  only  the  productive  work  of  the  farm,  or  the  work 
that  brings  in  a  direct  income,  such  as  the  work  on  crops  and  the 
work  on  productive  animals.  We  do  not  include  in  this  the  up- 
keep of  buildings,  the  building  or  repairing  of  fences,  or  the  care 
of  animals  that  are  not  directly  productive,  such  as  horses.  A 
productive  work  unit  is  the  unit  of  work  required  to  produce  one 
acre  of  hay.  The  amount  of  man  labor  required  to  produce  one 
acre  of  hay  is  called  one  productive  man  work  unit.   The  amount 


Acres  of  cropi 

Average 

acres  of 

crops 

Number 
of  farms 

Labor 
income 

Crop  yields 
compared 
with  the 
average  of 
the  region 
(per  cent) 

20  or  less 

21-40 

41-  60 

61-80 

81-100 

101-140       

14 
31 
51 

69 
90 
118 
193 

18 
55 
95 
115 

95 
112 

88 

S      24 
257 
400 
481 
642 
937 
1,261 

75 
102 
103 

102 
101 
103 

Over  140 

100 

Fig.   103. — Relation  of  acres  of  crops  to  labor  income.     Five  hundred  and 
seventy-eight  farms,  Livingston  County,  New  York. 


of  horse  labor  required  to  produce  one  acre  of  hay  is  called  one 
productive  horse  work  unit. 

Crop  cost  accounts  kept  on  many  farms  in  many  regions  have 
enabled  investigators  to  determine  comparative  relationships  as 
to  the  time  expended  in  the  work  required  to  produce  one  acre 
of  hay,  in  the  work  required  to  produce  one  acre  of  each  of  the 
other  important  farm  crops,  and  in  the  work  required  to  care 
lor  various  productive  farm  animals.  The  productive  work  units 
found  to  be  required  for  the  more  common  enterprises  on  farms 
are  indicated  in  table  of  Fig.  104.  The  student  or  farmer  who 
wishes  to  measure  his  farm  business  correctly  can  do  so  by  the 
use  of  this  table.  Thus,  suppose  that  the  business  consists  of 
fifteen  dairy  cows,  four  acres  of  potatoes,  ten  acres  of  oats,  and 
fifty  acres  of  hay.   The  work  units  would  be  computed  as  follows: 


ORGANIZING  A   DAIRY  FARMING   BUSINESS 


309 


Studies  of  the  records  of  different  farms  made  by  farm  man- 
agement investigators  have  shown  that  there  is  great  variation 
in  the  number  of  productive  work  units  performed  per  man  and 
productive  work  units  done  per  horse.  Moreover,  such  studies 
show  us  that  the  larger  farms  succeed  in  accomplishing  more 
work  per  man  and  per  horse  than  do  the  smaller  farms,  or,  in 
other  words,  that  the  larger  farms  are  able  to  use  both  man 
and  horse  labor  more  efficiently  than  are  the  small  farms.  In 
the  table  of  Fig.  105,  this  increase  in  efficiency  appears.  This 
table  shows  that  the  men  on  farms  of  more  than  two  hundred 
acres  are  accomplishing  nearly  three  times  as  much  per  man  as 


Hofse  work 
units 


Timothy,  alfalfa,  clover,  per  acre  per  cutting. 
Oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  per  acre 

Corn,  husked  from  shock,  per  acre 

Corn  for  silo,  per  acre 

Field  beans,  per  acre 

Potatoes,  per  acre 

Cabbages,  per  acre 

Apples,  per  acre 

Dairy  cow 

10  cattle  or  colts  running  loose 

10  brood  sows,  and  raising  pigs  to  weaning. . . 

50  hogs,  not  brood  sows 

100  ewes 

100  hens 

Raising  200  chickens 


Fig.  104. — Productive  work  unit  table. 


310 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Acres 

Units  of 

productive 

work 

per  man 

Units  of 
productive 

work 
per  horse 

30  or  less 

102 
154 

205 
245 
253 
294 

35 

31-50 

41 

51-100  

57 

101-150 

62 

151-200           

65 

Over  200 

76 

Fig.  105. — Relation  of  size  of  farm  to  efficiency  in  the  use  of  men  and  horses. 
Six  hundred  and  seventy  farms,  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 

are  the  men  on  farms  of  thirty  acres  or  less.  Also,  it  shows  that 
horses  on  farms  of  two  hundred  acres  or  more  are  accomplishing 
more  than  twice  as  much  as  on  farms  of  thirty  acres  or  less. 
Here  are  two  of  the  big  reasons  why  the  larger  farm  pays  better 
than  the  smaller  farm:  first,  because  the  larger  farm  is  more 


Fig.  106.  —  Farm  power  ready  for  efficient  use. 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS 


3i: 


efficient  in  the  use  of  man  labor  and,  second,  because  the  larger 
farm  is  more  efficient  in  the  use  of  horse  labor.  Similar  studies 
have  indicated  that  a  large  farm  is  also  more  efficient  than  a 
small  one  in  the  use  of  machinery. 

We  may  conclude,  then,  that  the  larger  dairy  farm  will  pay 
better  on  the  average  than  the  smaller  dairy  farm.  If  it  is  un- 
successful, the  larger  farm  may  lose  more  money  than  the  smaller 
farm.  The  small  business  can  neither  make  much  nor  lose  much. 
A  study  of  these  figures  will  also  indicate  that  our  term  "large 
farm"  means  nothing  more  than  a  family-sized  farm,  i.e.  a  farm 
of  from  one  hundred  fifty  to  two  hundred  fifty  total  acres,  or 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  fifty  acres  of  crops.  We  must 
bear  in  mind,  however,  that  the  foregoing  discussion  deals  entirely 
with  dairy  farming  and  supplementary  cash  crops,  and  that  the 
substitution  of  highly  intensive  truck  growing  or  orcharding 
or  production  of  such  crops  as  hops  and  tobacco  may  make  a 
large  business  out  of  a  farm  with  only  sixty,  eighty,  or  a  hundred 
crop  acres. 

1.   Survey.      Collect  the  following  data  for  ten  farms  in  your  school 
district : 


Total 
acres 

Acres 

of 
crops 

Number 

of 
horses 

Crop 

acres 

per  horse 

Average 

number 

of  men 

employed 

Crop 

acres 

per  man 

Farm  No.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10.. .. . 

Total 

Average 

312 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


2.  Question.  Knowing  the  sale  prices  of  the  prevailing  crops,  what 
conclusions  can  you  draw  from  the  above  data  as  to  the  com- 
parative successes  or  failures  on  these  farms? 

3.  —  Keep  High-producing  Cows  Because 
They  Are  Most  Profitable 

The  dairy  business  of  the  country  is  conducted  on  a  narrow 
margin  of  profit.  The  average  production  of  milk  per  cow  is  small, 
and  the  average  herd  of  cows  at  present  probably  returns  the 
owner  only  about  a  hired  man's  wages.  In  order  to  attain  success 
as  dairymen,  we  must  have  cows  that  produce  much  more  than 
the  average  and  must  put  into  practice  such  principles  and 
methods  as  have  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages  and  are 
summed  up  in  this  concluding  chapter. 


Receipts  per  cow 

Average  re- 
ceipts per  cow 

Number 
of  farms 

Labor 
income 

$  30  or  less 

$  22 
42 
63 
86 
119 

45 
178 
221 
111 

30 

$  241 

31-50 

51-75 

76-100 

Over  $100 

394 

764 

909 

1,307 

Fig.  107. — Relation  of  receipts  per  cow  from  milk  and  its  products  to  profits 
on  five  hundred  and  eighty-five  farms  with  six  or  more  cows,  Jefferson 
Countv,  New  York. 


Farm  management  investigations  conducted  in  one  of  the 
larger  dairy  counties  of  New  York  State  for  the  year  1910  show 
the  relation  between  receipts  per  cow  and  labor  income  indicated 
in  the  table  of  Fig.  107.  In  studying  this  table  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  of  course,  that  recent  prices  of  milk  are  more  than 
twice  those  received  for  milk  in  the  year  1910.  .The  increase  in 
labor  income  in  proportion  to  increased  production  per  cow  is 
consistent,  the  labor  income  on  farms,  which  received  over  $100 
per  cow,  being  more  than  five  times  the  labor  income  received 
on  farms  selling  less  than  $30  worth  of  milk  products  per  cow. 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS         313 

Under  most  conditions  a  cow  should  give  from  six  to  seven  thou- 
sand pounds  of  three  per  cent  milk  during  a  year  in  order  to 
make  a  reasonable  profit  for  the  farmer. 

In  organizing  his  farm  business  the  dairyman  should  determine 
how  large  receipts  and  how  great  production  per  cow  will  be 
necessary  that  he  may  make  a  profit.  He  should  then  bend  his 
efforts  towards  attaining  this  standard  of  production  by  proper 
selection,  feeding,  care,  and  management. 

4.  —  Produce  Good  Crop  Yields  Because 
They  Pay  Best 

The  table  of  Fig.  108  shows  the  relation  of  crop  yields  to  labor 
income  as  determined  from  a  farm  management  survey  of  Living- 
ston County,  New  York.  Crop  yields  are  indicated  by  the  per- 
centage of  the  average  crop  yields  for  the  region.  Thus,  those 
farms  that  had  one  hundred  per  cent  yield  had  just  average  crops. 
Those  that  had  eighty-five  per  cent  yield  had  fifteen  per  cent 
below  the  average,  and  those  with  one  hundred  fifteen  per  cent 
yield  had  fifteen  per  cent  above  the  average  for  the  region.  As 
we  should  expect,  labor  income  increased  very  markedly  with 
increase  in  the  average  crop  yields.  We  should  note,  however, 
that  the  highest  group  here  contains  those  who  obtained  crop 
jdelds  of  one  hundred  twenty-five  per  cent  or  more,  i.e.  in  this 
group  were  all  those  farmers  who  obtained  a  twenty-five  per 
cent  greater  yield  of  crops  than  the  average  of  their  region.  This 
increase  over  the  average  is  surely  not  an  unreasonable  amount 
for  which  to  strive. 

Although  the  figures  in  this  table  do  not  indicate  it,  it  is  probable 
that  there  is  financial  danger  in  attempting  to  obtain  too  large 
crops.  The  farmer  who  attempts  to  obtain  twice  the  crop  yield 
of  his  neighbors  will  often  do  so  at  an  excessive  cost,  and  possibly 
at  a  loss,  rather  than  at  a  profit.  Good  crops  are  not  the  primary 
factors  affecting  profits  on  a  dairy  farm.  On  the  other  hand, 
good  crops  have  a  considerable  effect  upon  such  profits.  In  order 
to  make  the  largest  profits,  phenomenal  crop  yields  are  not 
necessary. 


314 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


Yields  compared  with  average  of  region 
(per  cent) 

Average  yield 
compared 

with  average 
of  region 
(per  cent) 

Number 
of  farms 

Labor 
income 

75  or  less 

67 
81 
90 
101 
110 
120 
138 

58 
60 
102 
116 
103 
66 
69 

$  165 

76-85 

219 

86-  95 

663 

96-105 

106-115 

570 

878 

116-125 

Over  125 

951 
1,090 

Fig.  108. — Relation  of  crop  yields  to  labor  income.  Five  hundred  and  seven tj-^- 
four  farms,  Livingston  County,  New  York. 

In  short,  organize  and  plan  so  that,  first,  you  shall  have  a  good- 
sized  business;  next,  attain  an  income  per  cow  of  from  sixty  to 
one  hundred  per  cent  above  the  average;  and,  finally,  get  crop 
yields  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  above  the  average.  When 
you  have  got  these  results  you  will  have  taken  three  of  the  biggest 
steps  towards  the  organization  of  a  successful  farm  business. 

1.  Problem.     For  ten  farms  in  your  school  district  list  the  number  of 

acres  of  each  important  crop  and  the  total  amount  of  crop  pro- 
duced. Find  the  average  yield  per  acre  of  each  crop  for  the 
school  district. 

2.  Problem.     How  do  these  average  yields  compare  with  the  average 

yields  of  the  same  crops  in  the  county?     in  the  state? 

3.  Problem.     If  we  assume  that  the  successful  farm  should  have  crop 

yields  twenty-five  per  cent  above  the  average,  what  crop  yields 
should  be  obtained  for  each  of  the  principal  crops  of  your  neigh- 
borhood? 


5. —  Operate  a  Well-balanced  Farm  Because  Diversified 
Production  Pays  the  Largest  Profits 

We  have  seen  that  the  large-sized  farm  business  pays  better 
than  the  small-sized  farm  business;  also,  that  the  farm  with  high- 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS         315 


316  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

producing  cows  pays  better  than  the  farm  with  low-producing 
cows;  and  that  the  farm  with  good  crop  production  pays  better 
than  the  farm  with  poor  crop  production.  There  is  one  other 
factor  of  major  importance  to  be  considered  in  planning  the 
organization  of  a  farm  business;  namely,  diversification. 

The  diversified  farm,  or  the  well-balanced  farm,  is  one  that 
receives  its  income  from  several  sources.  Such  a  farm  pays  a 
larger  labor  income  than  does  the  farm  that  receives  its  income 
from  a  single  source.  This  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  table  of 
Fig.  110.  In  this  table  the  farms  surveyed  in  Jefferson  County, 
New  York,  were  divided  into  groups  in  accordance  with  the  per 
cent  of  total  receipts  coming  from  crops.  Jefferson  County  is  a 
typical  dairying  county,  with  its  major  income  from  dairy  prod- 
ucts. The  percentage  of  receipts  from  crops  on  a  farm  in  this 
region  is  a  good  measure  of  its  diversity.  If  twenty  per  cent  of 
its  total  receipts  come  from  crops,  it  is  a  fair  indication  that  the 
farm  sells  one  major  crop  product  in  addition  to  its  dairy  products. 

In  the  table  of  Fig.  110,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  average  labor 
income  of  all  the  farms  surveyed  in  Jefferson  County  for  that 
year  was  $609.  The  farms  that  sold  no  crops,  therefore,  received 
a  labor  income  of  practically  $200  less  than  the  average  labor 
income.  Those  farms  that  received  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  their 
total  income  from  crops  had  an  average  labor  income  of  $134 
more  than  the  specialized  dairy  farms.  In  the  group  receiving 
from  eleven  to  twenty  per  cent  from  crops,  the  income  increased 
a  Httle  more  than  another  $100,  or  there  was  an  average  labor 
income  of  $653.  Those  farms  that  had  from  fort3'^-one  to  sixty 
per  cent  of  their  total  receipts  from  crops  made  a  labor  income 
averaging  $781.  Farms  with  over  sixty  per  cent  from  crops  made 
a  smaller  labor  income,  averaging  only  $536.  The  farmers  in  this 
latter  group  who  were  receiving  more  than  sixty  per  cent  of  their 
income  from  crops  were  a  little  overbalanced  on  the  crop  side. 
They  were  carrying  on  a  type  of  farming  that  was  not  entirely 
adapted  to  their  region. 

The  importance  of  proper  diversity,  or  balance,  in  the  farm 
business  is  further  indicated  in  the  table  of  Fig.  113.    This  table 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS         317 


Per  cent  of  receipts 
from  crops 

Average 

per  cent 

from  crops 

Number 
of  farms 

Receipts 
per  cow 
from  milk 
and  its 
products 

Work 

units 

per  man 

Labor 
income 

0 

10  or  less 

0 
4 
16 
30 
49 
76 

81 
201 
111 
180 
65 
32 

$61 
65 
60 
57 
50 
32 

243 
248 
247 
252 
236 
168 

$412 
546 

11-20 

21-40 

41-60 

Over  60 

653 
692 

781 
536 

Fig.  110. — Relation  of  profits  to  proportion  of  the  income  from  crops.     Six 
hundred  and  seventy  farms,  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 

shows  that  when  the  farms  were  arranged  in  groups  according 
to  the  number  of  crop  acres  per  animal  unit,  the  farms  that  had 
from  four  to  five  acres  of  crops  per  animal  paid  better  than  those 
that  had  fewer  crop  acres  per  animal.  It  further  appears  from 
the  column  under  crop  yields  that  this  result  came  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  farms  with  a  large  number  of  crop  acres  per 
animal  had  a  smaller  crop  yield  per  acre. 

There  are  other  reasons  why  the  well-balanced  dairy  farm  pays 
better  than  the  specialized  dairy  farm.  A  study  of  farm  manage- 
ment survey  records,  or  cost  accounts,  of  many  farms  shows  us 
that  the  number  of  men  required  to  milk  a  given  number  of 
cows  can  not  be  fully  occupied  in  raising  the  hay  and  silage  that 
those  cows  will  eat.  In  addition  to  caring  for  the  cows,  they  will 
have  plenty  of  time  to  raise  one  or  two  cash  crops,  such  as  potatoes, 
cabbages,  beans,  wheat,  or  hay. 

It  is  sometimes  suggested  that  the  Eastern  farmer,  instead  of 
imdertaking  to  raise  crops  for  sale,  should  attempt  to  raise  all 
of  the  grain  required  to  feed  the  dairy  herd.  But  dairy  farmers 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  long  ago  decided  that 
they  could  not  raise  grain  in  competition  with  the  Western  grain 
grower.  Moreover,  it  is  practically  impossible  for  most  of  them 
to  raise  the  high-protein  feeds.  Under  conditions  in  the  East 
it  is  much  more  profitable  for  the  dairy  farmer  to  raise  a  good 
cash  crop  for  which  his  region  is  adapted,  to  sell  this  crop,  and  to 


318 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


purchase  dairy  feeds,  than  to  attempt  to  raise  such  feeds  for 
his  herd. 

Farm  management  surveys  in  many  other  states  than  New 
York  have  nearly  all  shown  that  the  farms  that  have  several 
major  enterprises  from  which  they  sell  products  pay  better  than 
those  that  sell  only  one  product.    Diversity  is  not  fully  measured 


Fig.  111.  —  Potatoes  grown  to  give  the  desired  balance  to  a  dairy-farm 
business. 


in  per  cent  of  total  receipts  from  crops;  but  for  the  dairy  farm, 
this  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  ways  of  measuring  it. 

If  a  farm  is  too  heavily  stocked  it  can  not  make  efficient  use  or 
receive  the  greatest  profits  from  the  use  of  manure. 

Experiments  conducted  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  indicate 
that  a  much  larger  return  per  ton  of  manure  is  obtained  from 
Ught  manuring  than  from  heavy  manuring. 


ORGANIZING  A  DAIRY  FARMING  BUSINESS 


319 


Diversity  in  a  farm  business  does  not  mean  necessarily  that 
the  farm  should  sell  a  great  number  of  different  products.  It 
means  that  the  larger  farm  that  pays  best  will  probably  sell  from 
two  to  five  major  products,  each  one  of  which  is  important  enough 
for  the  farmer  to  feel  justified  in  making  a  specialty  of  it  and 
in  becoming  an  expert  in  its  production. 

The  table  of  Fig.  114  contains  the  comparative  values  of  the 
size  of  the  business,  of  the  production  of  cows,  and  of  the  produc- 
tion of  crops.  "Crop  Index"  in  this  table  means  a  comparison 
of  the  crops  of  this  group  of  farms  with  the  average  yields  of 
the  region  taken  as  one  hundred  per  cent.  An  eighty-five  per  cent 
crop  index  means  crops  eighty-five  per  cent  as  good  as  the  average 
of  the  region.  A  one  hundred  fifteen  per  cent  crop  index  means 
crops  fifteen  per  cent  above  the  average  of  the  region.  By  study- 
ing this  table  you  will  see  that  as  soon  as  you  get  into  the  group 
of  farms  that  have  more  than  one  hundred  fifty  acres,  the  average 
labor  income  is  more  than  $1,000,  even  with  receipts  per  cow  of 
from  S51  to  $75,  and  crop  production  just  about  equal  to  the 
average  of  the  region.  It  will  also  be  observed  that,  in  this  dairy 
region,  farms  of  over  one  hundred  fifty  acres  that  had  good  cows, 


Number 

of 

farms 

Factors 

Average 

labor 
income 

Per  cent 

making 

over  $1000 

97 

$  684 
968 
898 
994 

1,044 

1,567 
1,968 

24 

97 
97 

With  highest  receipts  per  cow 

41 
43 

23 
71 
.31 

With  best  crops  and  best  cows 

With  over  200  acres  and  diversified 

With  over  200  acres 

With  average  or  better  cows 

39 
46 

13 

With  average  or  better  crops 

With  over  200  acres . 

87 

With  average  or  better  cows 

With  average  or  better  crops 

100 

Fig.  112. — Combined  effect  of  several  factors  on  labor  income, 
and  seventy  farms,  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 


Six  hundred 


320 


DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 


that  is,  receipts  of  over  $75  per  cow,  showed  an  average  labor 
income  of  $1,233,  even  though  the  crop  production  was  fifteen 
per  cent  below  the  average. 

Farms  of  less  than  one  hundred  acres  were  unable  to  make 
$1,000  on  the  average,  even  when  they  had  very  good  cows  and 
very  good  crops.  The  size  of  the  business  of  the  dairy  farm  is 
a  factor  that  always  limits  profits. 


Acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit 


1.0-2.0.. 

2.1-3.0.. 
3.1-4.0.. 
4.1-5.0.. 
Over  5.0. 


Number 
of  farms 


165 

229 

131 

64 

81 


Crop  yields 
compared 

with  average 
of  region 
(per  cent) 


123 

104 

93 

88 
91 


Labor 
income 


$  580 
597 
601 
721 
627 


Fig.  113. — Relation  of  acres  of  crops  per  animal  unit  to  labor  income  and  crop 
yields.     Six  hundred  and  seventy  farms,  Jefferson  County,  New  York. 


Acres 

100  or  less 

101-150 

Over  150 

Labor  income 

Labor  income 

Labor  income 

Receipts  per  cow,  $50  or  less 

Crop  index,  85  per  cent  or  less 

$  308 

$  273 

$  331 

Crop  index,  86-115  per  cent 

381 

482 

424 

Crop  index,  over  115  per  cent 

158 

415 

413 

Receipts  per  cow,  $51-$75 

Crop  index,  85  per  cent  or  less 

304 

590 

669 

Crop  index,  86-115  per  cent 

437 

653 

1,017 

Crop  index,  over  115  per  cent 

537 

636 

1,161 

Receipts  per  cow,  over  $75 

Crop  index,  85  per  cent  or  less 

594 

935 

1,233 

Crop  index,  86-115  per  cent 

641 

1,038 

1,148 

Crop  index,  over  115  per  cent 

659 

1,124 

1,291 

Fig.  114. — Relation  of  size  of  farm,  receipts  per  cow,  and  crop  yields  to  labor 
income  on  five  hundred  and  eighty-five  farms  with  six  or  more  cows, 
Jefferson  County,  New  York. 


ORGANIZING  A   DAIRY  FARMING   BUSINESS  321 

6.  —  Conclusion:    Aim  at  Four  Essentials  for  Success 

In  organizing  a  dairy  farm  business,  we  should  aim  then  to 
achieve  these  four  essentials,  which  are  the  requisites  of  success. 

Large  Size 

From  one  hundred  twenty  to  one  hundred  forty  crop  acres. 
Twenty  or  more  dairy  cows. 

High  Production  of  Cows 

Production  per  cow  of  from  seven  to  eight  thousand  pounds  of 
milk  per  year.  A  larger  production  than  this  is  even  better,  if 
not  obtained  at  an  exorbitant  cost  or  by  sacrificing  diversity. 

Good  Production  of  Crops 

Production  of  crops  at  least  twenty  per  cent  better  than  the 
a-'erage  of  the  region. 

Diversity 

From  twenty  to  forty  per  cent  of  the  total  receipts  from  crops, 
or  from  sources  other  than  milk  and  milk  products. 

1.  Obtain  a  farm  management  survey  record  blank  from  the 

nearest  agricultural  college  and  make  a  survey  of  your  farm 
business.  Figure  the  labor  income,  crop  index,  receipts  per 
cow  from  milk  and  milk  products,  productive  man  work 
units,  productive  horse  work  imits,  crop  acres,  and  per  cent 
of  total  receipts  from  crops.  Compare  these  with  averages 
given  in  the  tables  in  this  chapter.  What  are  the  weak 
spots  in  your  farm  business?  "What  are  the  strong  spots? 
How  could  it  be  improved? 

2.  The  class  should  visit  one  or  more  good  dairy  farms,  fill  a  survey 

record  for  one  or  more,  and  work  out  the  factors  given  above. 
Make  a  study  of  the  business  as  indicated  above. 

3.  What  is  the  relation  of  size  of  farm  to  economy  in  buymg  and 

selUng?     W-FM  .  262. 


322  DAIRY  FARMING  PROJECTS 

4.  Is  success  in  farming  entirely  due  to  the  man?    W-FM  :  263. 

5.  What  is  the  relation  of  size  of  farm  to  "keeping  the  boys  on 

the  farm"?     W-FM  :  268. 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  diversified  farming? 

W-FM:  107-109. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "seasonal  distribution  of  labor"? 

W-FM  :  109. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  important  combinations  of  products  sold 

on  successful  farms?     W-FM  :  134-140. 

9.  In  herds  of  what  size  are  most  of  the  dairy  products  of  the 

world  produced?     W-FM  :  204. 

10.  Are  our  crop  yields  decreasing?     W-FM  :  183. 


PROPERTY  UBRAR7 

N.  C.  State  College 


INDEX 


Abortion,  contagious,  in  dairy  cattle, 

210 
Accounts,  closing  at  end  of  year,  198 
Accounts,  farm,  the  keeping  of,  188 
Accounts,  items  difficult  to  classify, 

196 
Accounts,  miscellaneous  notes  in,  198 
Accounts,  studying  and  interpreting 

results,  62,  204 

{See  also  Records.) 
Acid  soils,  treatment  of,  159 
Adaptation     of     dairying     to     new 

regions,  144 
Advertising   dairy   cattle   and   dairy 

products,  248 
Ailments   to   be   treated   at   time   of 

milking,  92 

{See  also  Diseases  of  dairy  cattle.) 
Ayrshire  cattle,  41 


B 


Babcock  test  for  butter  fat  in  milk,  61 
Bacteria  in  milk,  133,  134 
Bakevvell,  Robert,  work  in  improving 

cattle,  52 
Balanced  ration,  70,  81,  121 
Barn,  dairy,  basement  for,  167 
Barn,  dairy,  dimensions  of,  166 
Barn,  dairy,  materials  for  construc- 
tion, 167 
Barn,  dairy,  planning  of,  162 
Barn,  dairy,  shape  of,  163 
Basement  for  dairv  barn,  167 
Bedding  the  cow,  88,  93,  132,  153 
Beef    cow,    comparison    with    dairy 

cow,  32,  40 
Beefiness  undesirable  in  dairy  cow,  32 
Bloody  milk,  92 
Breeding  for  improvement   of  dairy 

herd,  229 
Breeding  pure  bred  stock,  220 
Breeds  of  dairy  cattle,  40 
Bull,  feed  for,  99 


Bull,  proper  form  and  appearance,  97 

Bull,  score  card  for,  101 

Bull,  selection  of,  96 

Bulls,  young,  disposal  of  in  breeding, 

227 
Bull,  treatment  of,  99 
Butter-fat  test,  57,  58,  64 


Calendar  for  dairy  farming  projects,  4 
Calf,  dairy,  care  of  at  birth,  213 
Calf,  dairy,  care  of  while  young,  213 
Calf,   dairy,  disease  prevention  and 

treatment,  217 
Calf,  dairy,  feeding  of,  214 
Calf,  dairy,  pasturing,  215 
Calf,    dairy,    preventing    growth    of 

horns,  217 
Calf,  dairy,  raising  the,  ?12 
Calves,  prevention  from  sucking  one 

another,  218 
Calving  time,   treatment  of  cow   at, 

177 
Cans,  milk,  care  of,  131 
Cash  capital  needed  in  dairy  farming, 

300 
Cato,  advice  in  choosing  and  buying 

a  farm,  292 
Cattlemen  by  inheritance,  142 
Certified  milk,  production  of,  132 
Chapped  teats,  92 
Chemicals    for    reenforcing    manure, 

121 
Choosing  a  dairy  farm,  282 
Classification    of    records    for    farm 

products  and  feed,  195 
Clean  milk,  production  of,  127,  128 
Climate  required  for  dairy  farming, 

137 
Clothing  for  milkers,  129 
Commercial  fertilizer  to  supplement 

manure,  121,  158 
Competing  types  of  farming,  141 
Concentrates,     digestible     nutrients 

in,  73 


323 


324 


INDEX 


Contagious  abortion  in  dairy  cattle, 

210 
Cooling  milk,  132 
Cost  of  digestible  nutrients  in  differ 

ent  grains,  73 
Cost  of  starting  a  dairy  farm,  294 
Cow,    care    of,    before    and    during 

calving,  175 
Cow,  drying  up  the,  175 
Cow,  proper  form  and  appearance,  31 
Cows,  dairy,  selection  of,  30 
Cows,  score  card  for,  38 
Cows,  unprofitable,  culling  of,  226 
{See    also    Dairy    cattle.    Dairy 
cows  ) 
Credit,  establishing  of,  300 
Crop  ration,  balancing  by  reenforcing 

manure,  121 

{See  also  Balanced  ration.) 
Crop  rotation,  planning,  148,  154,  156 
Crop  yields  as  related  to  profits  in 

dairying,  313,  321 
Crossbreeding,  239 
Culling  unprofitable  cows,  226 

D 

Daily  milk  weight  sheet,  56 
Dairy  barn,  planning  of,  162 

{See  also  Barn,  dairy.) 
Dairy  calf,  raising  the,  212 
{See  also  Calf,  dairy.) 
Dairy  cattle,  preparing  for  show  or 

sale,  243 
Dairy     cows,     distribution     in     the 

United  States,  140 
{See  also  Cows.) 
Dairy  farm,  choosing  and  buying,  282 
Dairy  farming,  regions  adapted  for, 

136,  284 
Dairy  heifer,  development  of,  181 

{See  also  Heifer,  dairy.) 
Dairy    herd    records,     the    keeping 

of,  55,  226 
Dairy   house,   location   and   arrange- 
ment of,  173 
Dairying,  adaotation  to  new  regions, 

144 
Dairying,  development  prevented  by 

competing  types  of  farming,  141 
Development  of  dairy  cows,  37,  52 
Digestible     nutrients     in     different 

grains,  73 
Diseases  of  dairy  cattle,  92,  185,  207, 

217 


Distribution   of   dairy    cows   in    the 

United  States,  140 
Diversified    farming    desirable,    314, 

321 
Dry  cow,  feeding  of,  83 
Drying  up  the  cow,  175,  176 
Dry  matter  in  ration,  72 
Dual-purpose  cattle,  40,  52 


Exhibition,    preparing    dairy    cattle 

for,  243 
Expenditures    and    receipts,    record 

of,  191 


Farm  accounts,  the  keeping  of,  188 
Farm  Loan  Association,  Federal,  297 
Farm  product  record,  195 
Farmstead  for  dairy  farm,   location 

and  arrangement,  271 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Association,  297 
Feeding  and  watering  a  dairy  cow, 

69,  131 
Feeding  before  calving,  176 
Feeding  during  milking,  77,  89 
Feeding  in  summer,  80,  257 
Feeding  in  winter,  77 
Feeding  the  bull,  99 
Feeding  the  dry  cow,  83 
Feed  record,  59,  195 
Feeds  divided  as  to  protein  content, 

71 
Fences,  field,  on  dairy  farm,  279 
Fences,  pasture,  266,  279 
FertiUty,  system  for  maintaining,  148 
Fertilizer,  commercial,  to  supplement 

manure,  121,  158 
Field  layout  for  dairy  farm,  275 
Financing  the  dairy  farm  business, 

294 
Food,  how  the  animal's  body  uses,  84 
Food  used  to  produce  100  pounds  of 

milk,  85 
Foot  rot,  or  fouls  in  dairy  cattle,  209 
Fouls  in  dairy  cattle,  209 


Garget  in  dairy  cattle,  207 

Grades    as    preparation    for    raising 

pure  breds,  220 
Grain    for    supplementary    summer 

feeding,  81 


INDEX 


325 


Grains  for  crop  rotation,  153 
Grains,  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients 

in,  73 
Grain  to  supplement  soiling  crops,  83 
Grass     land     necessary     for     dairy 

farming,  139 
Guernsey  cattle,  46 


H 


Hay,  growing  for  live  stock,  149 
Health  of  cows,  130 
Health  of  milkers,  128 
Heifer,  dairy,  breeding  of,  184 
Heifer,  dairy,  development  of,  181 
Heifer,  dairy,  feeding  of,  182 
Heifer,  dairy,  preparation  for  milk- 
ing, 186 
Heifer,    dairy,    protection    from    lice 

and  diseases,  185 
Heifer,  dairy,  shelter  for,  184 
Herd  records,  the  keeping  of,  55,  226 
Heredity  to  be  considered  in  breeding, 

233 
History  of  improvement  of  cattle  by 

selection,  52 
Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  48 
Hoof  rot,  209 

Horns,  preventing  growth  of,  217 
Hybridizing  in  breeding  dairy  cattle, 
239 


Ice  house,  location  and  arrangement 

of,  173 
Improvement  by  selection,  37,  52 
Improving   the   dairy   herd   through 

breeding,  229 
Inbreeding,  235 

Indigestion  in  dairy  cattle,  208 
Inheritance   of   natural   or   acquired 

characteristics,  235 
Injured  teats,  92 
Inventories,  the  taking  of,  189 
Investment,  original,  necessary  for  a 

dairy  farm,  294 


Jersey  cattle,  44 
Judging  the  bull,  101 
Judging  the  dairy  cow,  37 


Kicking,  methods  of  preventing,  93 
King  system  of  ventilation,  104,  107 


Labor  income,  303 
Labor  records,  193 
Lactation  period,  treatment  of  cow 

with  respect  to,  175 
Leaking  teats,  92 

Legumes,  growing  for  live  stock,  150 
Lice,  removal  of,  185,  218 
Light  in  stable,  provision  for,  1 10 
Lime,  use  of,  where  needed,  159,  262 
Liquid  manure,   fertilizing  value  of, 

115 
Loan  Association,  Federal  Farm,  297 


M 


Machines,  milking,  90 
Manure,  amount  of  water  and  plant- 
food  materials  in,  117 
Manure,  application  to  crops,  122 
Manure,     application     to     pasture, 

158,  261 
Manure,  chemical  reenforcement  for, 

121,  158 
Manure,  fertilizing  value  of,  115 
Manure,  hauling  and  spreading,  119 
Manure,  liquid,  method  of  saving,  115 
Manure,  losses  by  fermentation  and 

leaching,  116 
Manure,  market  value  of,  124 
Manure,  pit  for  storing,  120 
Manure,  rate  of  application,  122 
Manure,  storing,  120 
Manure,  value  of,  from  various  farm 

animals,  123 
Manurial  values  from  different  feeds, 

75  _ 

Marketing    dairy  cattle    and    dairy 

products,  248,  252 
Milk  cans,  care  of,  131 
Milk,  certified,  production  of,  132 
Milk,  clean,  production  of,  127,  128 
Milkers,  proper  condition  of,  128 
Milk   fever,    symptoms   of,    and   air 

treatment  for,  178,  179 
Milking  by  machine,  90 
Milking,     methods     tor     cleanliness 

in,  129 


326 


INDEX 


Milking,  proper  conditions  for,  88 
Milking,  proper  method  of,  89,  129 
Milking  the  dairy  heifer,  186 
Milk  pails,  care  of,  131 
Milk  production,   amount  necessary 

for  profit,  63,  312,  321 
Milk,  proper  cooHng,  132 
Milk,   sanitary,   production  of,    127, 

128 
Milk  weight  sheet,  56 
Miscellaneous  items  in  records,   196 
Miscellaneous  notes  in  accounts,  198 
Modern  cow,  development  from  wild 

cattle,  52 
Mortgage,  establishing  a  dairy  farm 

on,  297 

N 

Nutrients,     digestible,     in     different 

grains,  73 
Nutritive  ratio,  70,  74 


O 


Organizing  a  dairy  business,  303 
Ownership  of  farm,  first  steps  toward, 
295 


Pails,  milk,  care  of,  131 

PalatabiUty  of  different  feeds,  74 

Pasture,  care  of,  81,  257 

Pasture  fences,  266,  279 

Pasture  for  summer  feeding,  economy 

of,  80,  258 
Pasture  grasses,  264 
Pasture    land    necessary    for    dairy 

farming,  139 
Pasture,  liming,  262 
Pasture,  manuring,  158,  261 
Pasture,  permanency  desirable  rather 

than  rotation,  156 
Pastures,  alternating,  262 
Pastures,  reseeding,  264 
Pastures,  temporary,  263 
Pasturing  in  rotation,  263 
Pedigree  of  bull  to  be  considered,  98 
Prepotency     to     be     considered     in 

breeding,  239 
Preservatives  of  milk,  57 
Production,    amount    necessary    for 

profit,  63,  312,  321 


Production  of  cows  at  various  ages  as 
compared  with  that  of  mature 
cows,  63 

Production  records,  37,  53 

Productive  work  units,  308 

Products,  farm,  record  of,  195 

Profit,  amount  of  production  neces- 
sary for,  63,  312,  321 

Program,  seasonal,  for  dairy  farming 
projects,  4 

Project  calendar  for  dairy  farming,  4 

Protein  in  feeds,  71 

Pure  bred  bull,  necessity  for,  98 

Pure  bred  dairy  cattle,  raising  of,  220 

Q 

Quality,  conditions  determining,  35 

R 

Rainfall  needed  for  dairy  farming,  137 
Ration,  balanced,  70,  81,  121 
Rations  for  dairy  cattle,  69 

{See  also  Balanced  rations.) 
Reasons  for  keeping  records,  3,  55, 

188,  226 
Receipts    and    expenditures,    record 

of,  191 
Receipts  from  sale  of  dairy  products, 

138 
Record  blanks,  56 
Records,    classification   of,    for   farm 

products  and  feed,  195 
Records,  items  difficult  to  classify,  196 
Records  of  production,  37,  53 
Records,  summarizing  and  analyzing, 

62,  204 
Records,  the  keeping  of,  55,  188,  226 

{See  also  Accounts.) 
Regions   adapted  to  dairy  farming, 

136,  284 
Ringworm  in  dairy  calves,  217 
Rotation    of    crops,    planning,    148, 

154,  156 
Roughage  in  ration,  72 
Roughage,  production  for  live  stock, 

151 
Rutherford  system  of  ventilation,  106 


S 


Sale  of  dairy  products,  receipts  from, 
138 


INDEX 


327 


Sale,  preparing  dairy  cattle  for,  243 
Salt  for  dairy  cattle,  80,  85,  217 
Sampling  milk,  57,  58 
Sanitary  milk,  production  of,  127,  128 
Score  card  for  dairy  bull,  101 
Score  card  for  dairy  cows,  38 
Score  card  for  dairy  stables,  128 
Scours  in  dairy  calyes,  217 
Seasonal  program  for  dairy  farming 

projects,  4 
Selecting  the  bull,  96 
Selecting  the  dairy  cows,  30 
Sex  control  before  birth  of  calves,  235 
Show,  preparing  dairy  cattle  for,  243 
Silage,  corn,  cheapest  succulent  feed 

for  winter,  151 
Silo,  location  and  construction,   170 
Size   of   farm    business   a  factor   in 

success,  305,  321 
Soiling  crops  as  a  substitute  or  sup- 
plement for  pasture,  82,  268 
Stable  for  dairy  herd,  104,  168 
Stable,  interior  arrangement  of,  112, 

168 
Stable,  interior  arrangement  of,  112, 

168 
Stable,  lighting  of,  110 
Stable,  measurements  for,  168 
Stable,  score  card  for,  128 
Stable,  temperature  of,  111 
Stable,  ventilation  of,  104 
Succulent  roughage,   production   for 

live  stock,  151 
Summarizing  records,  62 
Summer  feeding,  80,  257 
Surplus  stock,  disposal  of,  in  breeding, 

227 


Teats,  leaking,  chapped,  or  injured, 
92 

Teeth,  age  of  young  cattle  deter- 
mined by,  36 

Teeth  important  in  selection  of 
cattle,  36 


Temperature  of  stable,  HI 

Testing  milk  for  butter  fat,  57,  58,  64 

Topography,  general,  of  dairy  regions, 

139 
Transportation  of  dairy  products,  142 
Tuberculin  test,  130 
Tuberculosis  in  dairy  cattle,  210 


U 


Understanding  of  dairy  cattle  neces- 
sary for  success  in  dairying,  142 
Utensils  for  milk,  care  of,  131 


Variety    necessary    in    feeding    for 

production,  75 
Ventilation  of  stable.  King  system, 

104,  107 
Ventilation    of    stable,     Rutherford 

system,  106 
Vocational  guidance    as  to  dairying, 

142,  282,  294,  303 


W 


Warren  formula  for  computing  cost 

of  milk  production,  85 
Warts  on  teats,  93 
Water,   amount  needed  by  a  dairy 

cow,  79 
Water,  how  the  animal's  body  uses, 

84 
Watering  and  feeding  a  dairy  cow, 

69,  131 
Watering  the  dairy  cow  in  winter,  78 
Water,    proper   temperature   of,    for 

dairy  cows,  78,  79 
Weighing  milk,  56,  58,  90 
Windows  in  stable,  arrangement  of, 

110 
Winter  feeding  and  watering,  77 
Work  done,  record  of,  193 


